Rise of Mussolini and creation of a Fascist Dictatorship: Flashcards
What was the impact of WW1 on the Italian people?
Caused resentment, desire for change
-Class divisions grew wider.
-Violence between political groups was more common.
-Growing anger amongst ex-soldiers who felt betrayed/humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles.
Examples of the impact of ww1:
Ex-soldiers occupied hundreds of hectares of land in the south. They pushed for land reform.
-Economy suffered from debt and inflation.
-In the North: divide between returning soldiers and those exempt from this. The exempt had become more wealthy and they were seen as cowards.
Who was PM in 1919?
Vittorio Orlando.
What happened at the Versailles Treaty?
Orlando argued for all the land they were promised in Treaty of London 1919. However, the great powers did not see that Italy had justified this through the war effort –> Orlando knew this would cause anarchy.
What did Orlando do at ToV?
Left early
-gave him popularity in Italy but weakened his position in negotiations.
What land did Italy gain in ToV?
Trent, Trieste, Istria and northern Dalmatia
What were the consequences of The ToV in Italy?
Undermined liberal government as they failed to even gain any of the African Colonies –> mutilated victory that 600000 had died with little land gained.
How did Nitti worsen the situation in Italy post ToV?
He chose to play down the anger Italy had because they needed coal and money from the allies due to the weakened economy.
-He allowed Yugoslavia to take Dalmatia and Fiume became a neutral city under the LoN.
-Reduce military spending and pardoned those who deserted Italy during WW1. Nationalists found this disgusting.
How did Mussolini use the ‘mutilated victory’ to his advantage?
Argued that Italy needed a stronger government that would not back down and argued that they needed to return to Italy’s former glory –> this resonated with the people.
What was the role of Gabriel D’Annunzio in post war Italy?
Led nationalist group of 2000 (mostly ex-soldiers and students).
-In 1919, he led them into Fiume and seized it with no fight.
-He presented this as redemption for the soldiers who had died.
-This message was very popular as Italians were humiliated over the loss of Fiume.
How did the Government respond to the occupation of Fiume?
They failed to respond for 15 months due to D’Annunzio’s popularity.
What were the long term effects of the occupation of Fiume?
-Demonstrated the weakness of the Liberal Government and that success could be achieved through violence
-Mussolini saw the power that assertive nationalism had over the Italian people. He also appreciated the imagery that he created with the black shirts, fascist chants and the emotional speeches. When he became PM, he made him a prince as he recognised his threat if he opposed him.
Describe D’Annunzio:
Strong nationalist who supported Italy’s entrance into WW1 and was disgusted by the ToV. He emphasised the glory of battle - he lost sight in an eye during his time as a pilot.
Who were the Futurists?
Cultural group founded in 1909 that celebrated violence and patriotism. Despised liberal system. They formed part of Fascism and were disappointed in its less violent direction after 1926.
What was the Italian economy like in 1919?
-Millions of soldiers retuned unemployed (reached 2 million by end of 1919).
-High inflation and collapse of value for the lira.
-Middle class saw savings get wiped out as well as their pensions.
-Companies that benefitted from the war now struggled e.g. Fiat.
-Banking crisis when a major bank was forced to close due to controversy.
What were the effects of Italy’s poor economy in 1919?
Massive strikes: called for workers rights and possible revolution (Biennio Rosso period). e.g. railway strikes in January 1920 and an Army strike in July.
- Socialist and anarchist radicals were released from jail at end of war which added to the chaos.
-Socialist party membership rose massively.
-Protests against rising food prices in the north.
What was the largest strike in the Biennio Rosso period? How much did socialist party membership increase by?
September 1920 with 400k workers taking over factories and flying communist flags.
- Socialist party membership: 250k in 1918 and 2 million in 1920.
When did the government deal with these strikes? What was the outcome of these strikes on the peoples attitudes towards politics in Italy?
Eventually in 1920 they calmed the fears.
- By the end of 1920 the recession was at its height and economy was feared to be close to collapse.
-Middle and upper classes feared that there would be a revolution .
-Peasants were dissatisfied with the lack of land reform that was promised after ww1. Many peasants seized the land themselves - rural revolution was also feared. Rural socialist unions particularly strong in areas such as Bologna. Often violent attacks against those who refused to join the unions.
- Landowners were enraged by weak gov response to the chaos.
- Many upper class and middle class people looked to right wing organisations to provide an alternative to the liberals and destroy the growth of left wing parties.
What political reforms were given in 1919?
-Amount of people allowed to vote increased by 11 million.
-All males over 21 could participate in elections or that served at the front.
-Method of voting was proportional representation.
What political threat emerged to the liberal government in 1919?
-Catholic party formed - PPI.
-Emphasis on catholic interests (land reform and farming areas for peasants) but did not include the Roman Question in the manifesto.
-Led by priest Luigi Sturzo.
-Hostile to the Liberal Regime made formation of coalitions by Giolitti difficult.
-Growth of PSI especially after Russian Revolution radicalised them meant they now refused to work with the Liberals.
-Supported strikes and factory occupations and the end of Giolitti and his idea of ‘absorption’.
1919 Elections:
-PSI won 32% -156 socialist deputies (3 times what they won in previous election)
-PPI won 101 seats.
-Neither party had a full majority and were unwilling to work together –> the liberals still held power until 1922.
The fact the Liberals still held power was dangerous - despite political reform the same political groups that had ruled Italy since 1860 still held power –> disillusionment with democracy. More and more groups began to question if a more radical government was the answer.
Nitti’s government fell in 1920 and Giolitti took power.
P2: Foundation of Fasci di Combattimento: programme and issues with the programme
-Formed March 1919.
-Made up of ex soldiers and Arditi who had worn black uniforms - black shirts - and were formed after Caporetto.
-Focus on war: as a soldier during WW1 he saw the unity that it brought amongst the fighters - the ‘new’ Italy should be divided by those who fought and those who stayed at home.
Programme:
-Anticlerical - confiscation of Church property
-suffrage for women and younger Italians
-end to the monarchy
-8 hour work day, nationalisation of arms industry, confiscation of profits of companies from war.
Issue:
-Did not distinguish the party from other left wing parties e.g. PSI.
Squadrismo:
-Experience of war created a culture of violence amongst the soldiers who saw socialists and communists as enemies the same as they saw the Austrians.
-They formed the Squadrismo in April 1919.
-In 1919 they attacked Avanti where 3 socialists and 1 fascist died. Mussolini had not organised this but saw it as a powerful tool.
Move to the Right:
In 1919, the Fascists had won 5000 votes and a coffin was paraded through Milan. However, the squads had shown him there was another path to winning.
-The government had made no attempt to stop or condemn the squad violence because of the fear of socialist revolution.
-The squads were organised into units under command of a Ras (commander).
-Mostly got weapons from police and armies and attacked key PSI members across Italy (drink castor oil, beaten, some murdered)
Mussolini used this as propaganda to create a myth that he had saved Italy from socialism and had also saved them from Austrians in WW1.
-This was popular in the countryside with landowners as it ended land reform.
How many killed in first months of 1921 by Squads?
200 killed by Fascists and 1000 wounded.
Gaining Political Legitimacy in 1921 Elections:
After use of Squad violence against socialists, Liberal politicians began to see them as rescuing Italy from the same fate as Russia in 1917
May 1921:
-Squads used violence to attack socialist meetings and intimidate voters.
-Police and army lent vehicles and weapons to help this. As well as this the judiciary showed leniency to the Fascists.
-The Fascists won 7% of the vote: this gave Mussolini a voice in parliament and legitimised them as a political force and also gave him immunity to any police prosecution against him as a deputy.
New Programme:
1920:
-Dropped anticlerical and republican views.
-Promised to sell nationally owned businesses to private investors.
-Militaristic: compulsory military service, Irredentism and education that would prepare future soldiers.
October 1921:
-Movement organised into PNF.
-Gave him centralised control over the squads.
-Attempted to gain more ‘respectable’ members.
Fascist Support:
1921:
-Membership had grown to 200k members by the end of the year.
-Support came mainly from:
Urban middle class workers and small businesses due to the opposition to socialism.
-Middle and Upper classes saw the Fascists as a way of protecting against Land Reform.
-Financial support came from rich landowners and Industrialists as they attempted to break union power.
-From workers there is some support as there was an element of violence towards workers who refused to strike (violence from the socialists)
-Young Italians grew tired of the corruption of the liberal order.
Fascism had the ability to to appeal to men and women across different classes, regions and ages.
They were united by hatred for socialists and the weak liberal government and a hope that Mussolini could lead the country to a stronger future.
P3: Impact of the Resignation of Nitti:
-Resigned June 1920
-Giolitti reinstated who was now 80 and despised by nationalists for his policy on WW1.
-His solution to Biennio Rosso was to compromise with the workers and to give them representatives on managerial boards.
-This worked initially: the strikes ended by September 1920, but his compromise had angered conservative elite and nationalists who preferred the fascists attempts to use violence against the socialists.
-Trasformismo couldn’t work anymore due to the strong ideology of the parties e.g. PNF, PPI and the PCI who all despised eachother which made a coalition impossible: IN 1921 Giolitti tried to ‘tame’ the fascists by absorbing them - however Mussolini immediately announced that the would support the opposition.
Split of the PSI:
-In 1921, PSI split into PCI with Russian support who were more radical to create a revolution.
-This weakened the political power of the left.
-The middle classes etc were convinced Italy was on the verge of revolution.
-PCI was too small to be a political threat (either through violence or by winning seats).
-Mussolini used this to create a myth he had saved Italy from Revolution.
-PCI and PSI called for a 24 hour strike in 1922: the workers did not uspport this and it faded away; Mussolini presented this as something they had stopped which was effective.
Outcome of 1921 Election:
-123 Socialists, 15 Communists, 102 PPI and 35 Fascists.
-Giolitti resigned as it was impossible to create a coalitio government.
-He was replaced by Bonomi and then Facta who both resigned.
Dual Policy:
-1921: Mussolini called an end to Squadristi violence as communism was fading and wanted to avoid alienating the middle class - Pact of Pacification with PSI to ‘bring peace’ to Italy.
(This was actually a move to force Catholics and Liberals to deal with him to stop socialists)
-Ras: Fascism was more of a movement rather than a party with their influence (mostly Grandi, Balbo and Farinacci). The Ras condemned the Pact of Pacification and as a result Mussolini resigned to show that without him they lacked direction, which worked.
-Fascists voted Mussolini into leader and voted to organise the party into the PNF which showed Mussolini’s massive influence over the party and the lack of power the Ras held.
-The only concession he made was to drop Pact of Pacification and then increase squadristi violence to force gov. to give him power.
Return to Violence:
-1921: Organised into Cohorts under command of a Consul.
-From 1922, Violence increased against socialists councils across Italy.
-This was aided by the weakness of the Liberals: Bonomis government collapsed and was replaced by Facta.
-The fascists ripped through Italy from Rimini to Bertinoro and by september were ready to move into the Capital which was also aided by the July strikes which the Fascists responded to by keeping some public services running.
-In Genoa, Milan etc Fascist violence started by murdering socialist leaders.
-By October 1922 the Fascists were essentially in control of most of Italy’s provinces.
PNF Membership in 1922:
320k people.
Outcome of Dual Policy:
M. promised that if Fascists were accepted to government then he would pursue moderate policy whilst at the same time ordering attacks on Trent and Bolzani. (This was crucial as these towns were held by liberals which put enormous pressure on the liberal government under Facta)
-Liberals were unsure on how to respond: Orlando called for coalition to with Fascism as did Nitti - however they both did this as they thought it would help them become prime minister - liberals were more concerned of liberal rivals than they were of the threat of Mussolini (Giolitti refused to join Facta unless he was offered PM job by VE.)
-Mussolini took advantage of this by separate offering each of them the PM job in a fascist coalition.
Example of M. Dual Policy:
March on Rome: Mussolini concerned as the Ras called for a march on Rome but a march could cause a military response which the squads couldn’t handle.
October 1922: Mussolini makes speech to Squadristi in Naples asserting that either the gov. gives him power or he will take it.
-Mussolini continued to be in talks with liberal politicians about a coalition whilst the squads marched on Rome.
Events of March on Rome:
October: Occupied gov. offices and telephone exchanges. Facta then asked the king to declare Martial Law which the King agreed to the day after. The army began to control Milan and sent an order for Mussolini’s arrest.
However, the King soon changed his mind and refused to sign the decree.
Role of Victor Emmanuel III:
Victor Emmanuel was weak and indecisive.
-He lacked confidence in Facta.
-Encouraged to not sign the decree by Salandra and his Supporters as Salandra wanted to be PM.
-He didn’t have confidence the army would side with him and not the Fascists.
-The Kings cousin, The Duke of Aosta, was a fascist supporter and Mussolini hinted that if VE didn’t support him then he would be replaced by his cousin.
Mussolini’s Appointment as PM:
-Facta resigned without VE’s support, who then turned to Salandra to be PM with M as part of the government.
-M. was powerful enough to refuse to be part of government and demand the PM position.
-The liberals supported M. as PM as they all hated eachother and didn’t want the other to be PM.
-29th October: Mussolini offered PM position.
Propaganda:
-Arrived in Rome with 50k Fascists led by Quadrumvirs who were allowed to do a victory parade.
-There was a myth that Mussolini had forced the kings hand through armed insurrection and that it was a revolution.
-history books would write about the ‘civil war’ and the deaths of 3000 fascist martyrs.
-In reality, he was given the head of a coalition government in which most cabinet members were fascists.
P4: Problems that Mussolini had after appointment as PM:
-Squads demanded further revolution and reward for their role in the MoR.
-PMs did not last long and in 1922 this seemed to be the case for M.
-He only had 35 fascist deputies with the PSI dominating with 123 seats.
-His cabinet contained mostly other parties (4 liberals, 2 PPI, 1 ANI and 2 military)
Coercion (parliament, political parties and the catholic church)
-Appointed De’Stefani to placate the economic elite as he would not introduce any radical economic policy and would favour the elite.
-Increased clerical pay and reinstated crucifixes in Schools.
-ANI were absorbed into PNF in 1923 to take away a rival and increase right wing, nationalist vote to only 1 party: the PNF.
-PPI member Cavazzoni as minister of work and welfare which encouraged Cavazzoni to work with the PNF. As a result of PPI working with PNF, Sturzo (leader of PPI) resigned which along with the pro-Catholic policies by M. which led the church to favour the PNF, meant the PPI began to decline in influence.
-Gave speech to Parliament in November 1922 in which he requested a year of emergency decree whilst also warning them that he had 300k young men to take action against those who disagreed - Parliament approved this by 306 to 116.
Controlling the PNF:
December 1922: created Fascist grand council - made up of key Fascists ie Balbo, De Bono.
-Discussed key policy and became just as important as the Cabinet.
-Bypassed old liberal institutions such as the Cabinet.
As leader of the FGC, Mussolini had central control over the party and the policy it engaged with.
His next move to increase control was to create MVSN which absorbed the squadristi who was a formal paramilitary group to support the army and defend fascism.
-300k members.
-All had to swear allegiance to Mussolini.
-undermined control of the Ras
-increased control over the Blackshirts which was popular as conservative elite and middle classes viewed violence in a negative way as the threat of Revolution was essentially gone.
(-the power of the squads also decreased as the 780k members were mostly middle class since it had doubled from the MoR)
Acerbo Law:
Mussolini needed greater control over Parliament but proportional representation meant that any party was unlikely to gain a majority.
-states that any party that gains more than 1/4 of the vote would get 2/3 of the seats.
-opposed by PSI and PCI.
-supported by conservative elite and old liberals.
-violence was threatened in Tuscany and Umbria if the bill didn’t pass.
-Mussolini wore a black shirt to parliament to increase threat of violence to voters.
1924 Election:
-Campaign to win was marred by violence - clubs and offices of opposition destroyed and PSI candidate Piccinini was murdered.
-PNF victory as they gained 66% of vote anyway but this was helped by the fact oppositon vote was diluted between PSI and PCI and the fact that several liberal politicians had put themselves forward.
-Fascist seats incresed from 35 to 275.
The Fascists victory was mostly due to the facft that the opposition couldn’t put forward a candidate they could all agree on to prevent Mussolini.
Events of Matteotti Crisis:
Giacomo Matteotti - PCI leader.
-Gave speech denouncing violence and corruption during 1924 election in parliament.
-Whilst the speech itself was embarassing, M was more concerned with the rumours Matteotti had a file on fascist corruption which he was about to make public.
In June, Matteotti was kidnapped - witness states the license plate was the same as Cesare Rossi (Mussolini’s Press Secretary).
Leader of kidnapping was Amerigo Dumini who was arrested. He had links to key fascist officials although he had no direct link to Mussolini himself - this threatened to topple the PNF.
Impact of Matteotti Crisis:
M. faced opposition from:
elite who were concerned about backing a murderer.
PCI and PSI who called for dismissal of Mussolini and overthrowal of fascists.
Pressure from Ras to act on the murder and fulfil the Fascist revolution.
Aventine Secession:
-100 antifascist deputies left parliament in protest and established their own parliament on Aventine Hill.
-As Mussolini still had backing from conservative elite and knew they wouldn’t oppose removal of PSI and PCI, he decided to act.
-The absence of opposition in parliament made it easier to pass laws.
-Aventine Secession was hampered by ideological differences and therefore faced no threat to Mussolini.
Pressure from the Squads:
-M. placed Federzoni as interior and Rocco as justice minister which reassured the elite.
-Mussolini then ordered end to all forms of PNF violence and removal of any who didn’t follow this order.
-This caused pressure from squads: December - met with squads to demanded that he defend the revolution or he would be removed. As this was only 2 days after Salandra declared his opposition to M., he agreed to ‘defend the revolution’.
Establishment of the Dictatorship: How did he ensure support from Conservative elite?
3 Jan 1925: M. made a key speech in Parliament where he announced the dictatorship under Mussolini and not the PNF.
Later, he formed a new cabinet made almost entirely of Fascists where he had several roles: PM, Minister of Foreign affairs, war etc.
In February, Farinacci was tasked with purging those who wouldn’t accept M. direction.
October, FGC approved notion to force Ras to disband any squads.
He gained military support by increasing pay of officials and apponting Badoglio as chief of General Staff as opposed to a radical fascist.
He also announced the Palazzo Vidoni Pact which made fascist unions the only unions for workers which took power from Socialists and Catholics.
Amendments and establishing dictatorship:
August 1925: Tito Zaniboni was arrested for alledgedly plotting to kill Mussolini - as a result Mussolini banned the PSU and introduced law to make any journalism supervised by the state
-Government could sack any employee who were hostile to PNF.
In December, PM role was changed to Head of Government and Duce of Fascism.
-Parliament could not do a vote of no confidence
Jan 1926: Could rule by decree.
October 1926: Another assassination attempt led to the banning of all political parties except the PNF and a special tribunal for the Defence of the State was established to prosecute anti-fascists and Aventine deputies permanently excluded from parliament. Remaining PCI members were excluded and Gramsci was arrested. Around 10000 antifascist fled .
Local governments abolished and replaced with Podesta appointed by Prefects (who were appointed by Mussolini)
