Italy Chapter 4: 1935-46

Question 1

Mussolini’s foreign policy goals:

Answer 1

Mussolini’s foreign policy is often erratic and opportunistic, but he did have some clear aims:
-Assert Italy’s position as a great power - revising ToV and overcoming the shame of ‘mutilated victory’
-Create a great empire in Africa (Libya and later expand)
-Control the Mediterranean - viewed Italy as a ‘prisoner of the sea’

As time progressed, his goals didn’t change but his methods to obtain them became more aggressive into the later 1930s
-he became aggressive with western powers.
-he became closer allies with Hitler
This were both changes over time to his policy.

Often, his policy against larger powers was peaceful and his policy towards smaller nations aggressive.

Question 2

Foreign Policy in 1923:

Answer 2

-1923, Italian general Enrico Tellini murdered on diplomatic mission in Corfu and M. used this to attack the Greek government and accused them of being involved of the murder.
-Demanded they attend funeral at Church in Athens where they would honour the Italian flag and pay 50 million lire otherwise they would be occupied.

Success:
-Celebrated by nationalists at home as they saw M. as a dynamic leader who was willing to stand up for the nation, particularly after what they saw as weakness under the Liberals.

Failure:
-LoN and the British forced Mussolini to end the occupation and put the issue to their decision (they did receive the 50 million lire however.)
-Potentially shows M. subservience to greater powers than his own - he was informed that Italy would barley last 48 hours against Britain’s navy.

Question 3

Success in 1924:

Answer 3

-Yugoslavia recognised Fiume as Italy’s land.

Success:
-Showed M. success as a great leader who cared for national pride - the victory was symbolic as Fiume held no real value.
-The success was mostly symbolic whereas it brought him no international prestige.

Question 4

Locarno Treaty 1925:

Answer 4

-Germany accepts pre WW1 borders and is seen as finally bringing peace to tensions in Europe.
-Mussolini attended and tried (and failed) to also gain the same treaty for his borders with Austria.

Success:
-Domestic success as it showed people that M. was seen as an equal to the great powers by the mere fact he attended.

Question 5

Albanian and Yugoslavian Policy 1925:

Answer 5

-Supported Ahmet Zogu’s ascension to president and declaration as King Zog –> through bribery he obtained Albania as an Italian protectorate.

-This also undermined Yugoslavia’s policy by supporting groups that aimed to divide Yugoslavia - 1934 Croatian terrorists, funded by M., assassinated Yugoslavian King.

Question 6

Early Policy in Africa (up to 1934):

Answer 6

-Continued Liberal governments brutal suppression of rebellions that had started in WW1:
‘Pacification of Libya’ - poison gas, 1/3 of Libyan population killed - ended in 1932
-small but well organised force and required large numbers of Italians to end it, lasted 3 years.
-kept quiet in Italian press.

Question 7

Summary of M. early Foreign Policy:

Answer 7

-Gained him great domestic acclaim especially due to his contrast with the previous Liberal Government.
-Not any great gains made in Mediterranean.

Question 8

Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928:

Answer 8

-Outlawed war as a means to resolving conflict - signed by 9 powers including Italy
–>M. tried to get it agreed in Rome, which was refused.
-He did eventually send a delegate to sign it-
-He dismissed the pact in parliament later.

Question 9

Policy with Britain and France:

Answer 9

-Wanted to avoid tensions with them:
-Stayed in LoN, Locarno Treaty, Kellogg Briand Pact.

-Reached agreements to do with borders in North Africa to resolve tensions –> he didn’t fully listen to these and referred to them as insignificant.

-To summarise, he wanted to maintain good relations with Britain and France., however his desire for more control of Mediterranean conflicted with this: rearmament, supporting fascists in Malta but also relied on their finance e.g. 1927 re-evaluation of the Lira

French relations were similar but many antifascists settled in France and OVRA operated in France also which led to tense relations. They were also a rival in the Mediterranean and in NA (Tunisia)

Question 10

Policy with Germany:

Answer 10

-Aware that Germany could act as a counterbalance in Europe with Britain and France –> financed far right groups in 1920s.
-Also thought this might make Britain and France more likely to support his FP aims with a stronger ally to back him.

-Once Hitler came to power, it was initially tense –> 4 power conference which led to no peace (although he portrayed it as a victory)
-Nazi racial policy presented Italians as inferior.
-Competing interests in Austria as M. needed it to exert his influence –> 1934 M. was able to convince Hitler to not do Anschluss and also to get Chancellor Dollfuss to crack down on Austrian Nazis. When he was assassinated, he sent 40k troops to Austrian border to persuade Hitler to back down.

-This was a propaganda win as it portrayed M. as a stabilising force in Europe.

Question 11

Content of the Stresa Front/Agreement:

Answer 11

Italian, British and French agreed:
-Criticised Germany’s rearmament.
-Reaffirmed support for 1925 Locarno Treaties.
-Support independence of Austria.

Success:
Mussolini portrayed himself as a great statesman and had gained western support.

Failure:
The actual pact was vague and did not include any actual commitments from member countries.
The 3 countries were actually divided on how to deal with Germany. (M. undermined in this agreement by Anglo-German Naval agreement.)

Question 12

How did Mussolini use the Stresa Front to his advantage?

Answer 12

-Used British and French fears of German power to expand his own influence in North Africa (which would eventually strain western relations) and knew it would prevent Anschluss.

Question 13

Conclusion:

Answer 13

-Mussolini’s early foreign policy was spent gaining the Balkans as his sphere of influence
-Later Policy was spent aiming to prevent the spreading influence of Nazi Germany and to improve relations with Britain and France.
One aim that persists throughout is his desire for Italy to be seen as a great power.

Question 14

Section 2: Aggressive Foreign Policy 1935-1940

Question 15

(6 factors) Decision to Invade Abyssinia:

Answer 15

-Mussolini had misinterpreted Stresa Front that Britain and France were okay with him taking Abyssinia
-The invasion was popular with conservative elites - would create war contracts and with fascists - create unity in party and bring back to warlike beginnings.
-To bring national prestige/propaganda win by avenging humiliation at Adowa in 1896 and expanding the empire.
-Create empire in East Africa
-Find new market for Italy’s materials - many Italians would move to new land (hopefully)
-Impress Hitler.

Question 16

Wal-Wal Incident 1934:

Answer 16

Military confrontation with 50 Italian deaths and 150 Abyssinian deaths at Italian Fort - Wal-Wal.

This led Mussolini to place 220k troops on Abyssinian border in 1935, bringing them very close to war.

Question 17

Invasion of Abyssinia:

Answer 17

-1935: Captured Adowa: symbolic win as seen as avenging the loss in 1896.

-overall, slow advance as they had too build roads to transport goods
-attack was also slow due to counter attacks by Abyssinian’s.

-Victory achieved in 1936 - 600k troops used along with mustard gas and air power.

Question 18

Successes in Abyssinia:

Answer 18

-Hailed domestically as a great win for Fascism and the glory of it - 20 mill Italians listened to radio broadcast - ‘Italy has its empire’
-church supported it as it was seen as a way to spread Catholicism (King was crowned Emperor of Italian territories in East Africa)
-sanctions allowed Mussolini to present himself as standing up to entire world in this.

Question 19

Failure of Abyssinia:

Answer 19

-Budget deficit rose from 2.5 to 16 billion lire.
-Expensive to maintain 130k Italians settled there.
-250k troops stationed there - also expensive.
-October 1936 - lire devalued by 40%.
-Abyssinian’s maintained guerrilla war until 1941.
-Fascists gained a reputation for cruelty and being barbaric.

Question 20

Impact of Abyssinia on European relations:

Answer 20

-Britain and France in dilemma - wanted to support LoN but wanted to avoid pushing Italy towards Germany:
— Economic sanctions placed on Italy, although these were lenient e.g. still allowed oil.
—Hoare-Laval Pact: Italy could still keep Abyssinia but part of it would remain independent –> public condemnation.

Question 21

Spanish Civil War:

Answer 21

Intervention due to:
wanting to support Franco and fascism.
France supported the republicans and wanted to avoid French influence in Mediterranean spreading.

Provided: 400 fighter planes, 75k soldiers.

The fact that the Republicans were supported by the USSR meant that M. could claim they were preventing communism.

Question 22

Consequences for intervention in Spanish Civil War (international, domestic)

Answer 22

-widespread support for Republicans and condemnation of fascists for supporting Franco.
-Italy and Germany pushed closer together which would have disastrous consequences later on.

-success in that it strengthened Mussolini’s position in the Mediterranean and in Europe.

-domestic consequence: 14 billion lire was spent - Italy couldn’t afford this –> Italy not ready for WW2 as the civil war had sapped lots of military strength.

Question 23

Reasons for Italy and Germany moving closer together and consequences:

Answer 23

-Italian economies dependence on Germany
-poor relations with western powers.
-Mussolini was personally impressed by Hitler especially after his visit to Munich in 1937.

M. had become the subservient between him and Hitler which led to him losing popularity in Italy e.g. couldn’t prevent Anschluss in 38 like he did in 34.

–>signed anti-Comintern pact

Question 24

Sudetenland Crisis 1938:

Answer 24

-Mussolini organised Munich conference between Britain and Germany.
–> trying to present himself as a statesman but in reality was giving Hitler and easy opportunity to take the Sudetenland.
–>Italy and Germany grew closer relations, especially FM Ciano and Ribbentrop.

Question 25

Annexation of Albania 1939:

Answer 25

-Mussolini wanted to take Albania to present military strength to Germany - other ministers such as Ciano saw it as a valuable economic resource.

-italy easily defeated the small Albanian force - King Zog fled and a fascist regime was put in place.

Question 26

How had Mussolini’s foreign policy effected the domestic situation?

Answer 26

-Close relations with Germany, anti-Semitic decrees and the possibility of war all appalled Conservative elites.

-Italian society was very anti-Germany across the board, he was informed by police that the public were not enthusiastic at a war on the side of Germany.

Other things such as military spending, use of indoctrination and propaganda and use of fascist squads against criticism of Il Duce all enraged the public.

Although, the public was turning against Fascism rather than Mussolini himself.

Question 27

The Pact of Steel 1939:

Answer 27

Motivations:
-Hitler wanted it to move Britain and France towards Mediterranean and away from Poland.
-Goering assured Mussolini that he would not have to join a war for 2-3 years.

The treaty came as a surprise to Fascists as it meant that M. would have to follow Hitlers foreign policy and it did not seem that Italy and Germany were in close enough to sign such a ‘final’ pact.

Question 28

Why did Mussolini change his mind and sign the Pact of Steel?

Answer 28

-Mussolini didn’t have a clear FP plan.
-Britain and France had pushed M. towards Germany.
-Aligning ideologies.

Question 29

Nazi-soviet pact 1939:

Answer 29

-peace between Soviets and Nazis
-also contained plans for how to divide eastern Europe.
-Mussolini was not informed of the negotiations and it directly contravened the anti-comintern pact 1936.

Question 30

Neutrality august 1939:

Answer 30

-Mussolini was concerned over Nazi Soviet pact and also by Italy’s weak military. On top of this, most of Mussolini’s advisers had told him to avoid war.
-However, backing out of the war would make fascism look weak especially compared to Hitler and also reminded the people of the intervention crisis in 1918

Mussolini gave Hitler impossible demands for him to join him in war e.g. the resources he needed would require 17000 trains to transport the goods in order to have a reason to back out of the war. As a result, Hitler released Mussolini of the pact of steel and instead asked for psychological support and potential military aid.

-“Non-belligerence” was declared in 1939

Question 31

Fighting in France:

Answer 31

20th June 1920 - Mussolini pushed into France to give them a claim in land.

Problems:
-Lacked alpine clothing.
-Air force lacked bombs.
-Mussolini insisted on using tanks that weren’t right for the terrain.

Only 13 villages were captured and 631 men were lost - mostly from frostbite.

22nd June: French government signs armistice with Germany - propaganda made it seem Italy was crucial to this but they were already seeking this pre-war.

Question 32

Losses in North Africa:

Answer 32

-Mussolini hoped for short war and had ordered partial demobilisation of his troops as he believed the war was almost over.

In October, Italian troops attacked British areas in Libya.
-There were early successes in pushing them back to Suez Canal (this was a tactical retreat)
-December counter-attack:250000 Italians defeated by 30000 British troops. They had lost Eritrea, Somalia and Abyssinia by May 1941.
-400000 troops had been taken prisoner which was a huge blow to the propaganda.

The British advance was finally stopped by the Germans.

In 1943, the Axis surrendered in NA and left Libya. The Allies prepared to invade Italy from Tunisia.

Question 33

Navy in the Mediterranean:

Answer 33

The Medi. had been a focus for Fascist propaganda consistently. Despite this, M. had no clear strategy here.

• British Malta faced no attacks despite its importance and neither did Gibraltar or Alexandria.
• In 1940 they bombed their own ships (???)
  -Italians lacked aircraft carriers to launch attacks against the British.

Question 34

Disaster in Greece:

Answer 34

Attacked in 1940.
-This was not a focus for the Italians up to this point. They were more focussed on Yugoslavia and the Nazis had taken the Romanian oil fields which was seen as disregarding the Italian ‘sphere of influence’ in the Balkans.

Moving into Greece meant limiting Hitler’s position in the Balkans - Hitler was unaware of the invasion.

Disaster:
-Mussolini assumed they had 30k men when they had 300k men (???) so he attacked with 60k men.
-Bulgaria did not join the Italians despite what M. thought.
-He did not coordinate with the Navy or Air force.
-October had poor weather which slowed the invasion and disintegrated Italian uniforms (???)
-Greek counter attack meant that a quarter of Albania was lost and half a million Italians were deployed with 32k deaths.
-Germany was called to help (they defeated the Greeks in weeks)

Question 35

Impact of Disaster in Greece:

Answer 35

-Mussolini was now completely reliant and subservient to Hitler and was tied into his war completely.
-Germans had contempt for Italians.
-Major impact on the faith of Italians with Fascism.

Question 36

Reasons for poor performance in WW2 (leadership, economy, military)

Answer 36

Mussolini’s leadership:
-He held too much power: Minister of War, Minister of the Air Force, Supreme commander etc –> decisions couldn’t be made if M. wasn’t in Rome which was often.
- Wasted time e.g. Rome opera season instead of focusing on war in May 1940 or learning German instead of this (???)
-Gave vague instructions to staff to ‘increase war production’

Poor Military State:
-Could only arm 35/75 divisions which also meant that they couldn’t effectively fight in NA (the British also destroyed many supplies in the Medi.)
-Many rifles dated back to WW1, very little aircraft carriers, very little oil.
-Low rations, poor clothing.
-Language issues between commanders and fighters.
-Low morale.
-Outdated tactics.

Economy:
-Imported 1.5 mill tonnes of oil from Romania (half of what it needed during peacetime)
-Steel production fell as they relied on German coal which they couldn’t reliably get.
-Factories lacked materials e.g,. Fiat only made 2.5k cars per month in 1941 compared to 5k cars per month in 1938.
-Germans estimated that the economy was at 25% of its potential.
-only country in the war that did not increase its GDP.
-only 1k calories per day.
-Shoes, soap, heating in short supply and many Italians were unemployed (during war it should be near 100% employment)

Question 37

Political Tensions in 1943 (strikes, groups and elite)

Answer 37

Strikes:
-100k workers in Turin and Milan
-First strikes in 18 years.
-Due to economic turmoil, rationing, allied bombing etc.
-Organised by communists.
-Ended when government agreed to give more money to evacuees.

Anti-Fascist groups:
-L’Unita in 1942 (communist newspaper)
-Party of Action - Republicans, liberals.
-Catholic Action - backed by church.
-These groups were covert and considered illegal.
-1400 political arrests between march and June 1943.
-Organised strikes, slogans etc and was the first time communists, Catholics and socialists had worked together in Italy.

Conservative Elite:
-Started to doubt his leadership due to illness and lack of plans
-discuss how to remove Mussolini without instigating German occupation.

Question 38

Allied invasion of Sicily:

Answer 38

May 1943: Allies take Tunisia and route to invade Italy opens.

July: Take Sicily with little opposition.
Mussolini asked for troops from Hitler which was refused.

Allies bombed Rome for 2 hours killing 1500 people. Mussolini showed lack of leadership when he asked one of his generals if there was a plan to defend Sicily (this was his job).

By August the allies had full control of the Island (M was no longer dictator at this point)

Question 39

The Plan to depose Mussolini:

Answer 39

Began 1942 by Dino Grandi and Ciano with a plan to surrender Italy (the allies said this would only happen if Mussolini was deposed and only the King could do this)

In 1943, they discussed with the King replacing Mussolini with the monarchy - Roosevelt agreed if the king dismissed Mussolini.

The invasion of Sicily forced the fascists to act to depose M.
16th July - Grand Council meeting is called.
-24th July - the meeting is held. Grandi had the support of the other fascists, army generals, police leaders and the King (this only happened days before the meeting and was still questionable)

Mussolini always had the final say so he could ignore what they pass and arrest them if he wanted - Grandi brought 2 hidden grenades to the meeting just incase.

The resolution to depose Mussolini was passed 19 to 7 votes - Mussolini seemed calm and didn’t encourage any violence - this was because he didn’t have to accept this resolution.

The next day he met with the King to possibly transfer military command to him but stay in control of the Government.

Mussolini had dominated Victor Emmanuel for the past 20 years, so didn’t expect it when the King interrupted him and told him he was being replaced by Marshall Badoglio - he was arrested and taken to prison.

Question 40

The Allied Invasion of Italy: discussion and German invasion

Answer 40

Allied conflicted on invasion of Italy: mass invasion of Northern France would make it difficult.
Churchill wanted to invade Italy to gain more airfields and open up another front to invade Germany from - he eventually convinced the Americans.

The surrender itself caused issues: Badoglio had full control and had planned to transfer complete control to the Allies as well as 60k Italian troops - despite this on 8th September it was clear that this wouldn’t happen –> Italian army began to dissolve as orders weren’t clear, some surrendered, some carried on with the Germans, some carried on fighting the Germans.

Greek islands - around 6k soldiers killed by Germans.

9th September, German forces began to invade into Italy –> leaders fled south without leaving orders as they believed it might insight violence against civilians by the Germans (who at this point had captured Rome) –> 13th September Italy officially declared War.

Question 41

Fighting in Italy:

Answer 41

9 months to recapture Rome - hampered by Geography and poor weather e.g. Apennine Mountains forced war of attrition similar to WW1 in freezing conditions.

After 8 months the army was depleted, exhausted and troops were taken for the fight in Northern France.

It did help the war in that it took away troops from Germany - around 1 million.

June 1944 - Rome fell to allies.

War in the north would continue until May 1945, 20 months after the invasion began.

Question 42

Return of Mussolini:

Answer 42

August: Mussolini transferred to Gran Sasso prison - rescued by Germans in September.
-A day after Hitler met with Mussolini in Prussia and demanded he create a new government run by the Nazis (if he refused, Hitler would destroy Milan, Turin and Genoa).

25th September - Mussolini returns to Italy and established his capital at Lake Garda, Gargano.

Question 43

Republic of Salo (RSI): Nature, Puppet State, Extent of Mussolini’s Control and the Army

Answer 43

Nazi Puppet Government:
-ensured that the Government bodies were spread out over 100 miles of Northern Italy to stop it properly functioning
-Germans appointed the officials, often without consulting Mussolini to undermine his control.
-Forced M. to pay Germans seven billion lire a month.

However Mussolini still had some control:
-controlled richest parts of Italy i.e. Piedmont
-Mussolini created new cabinet of radical fascists - mainly from black shirt militia from the 1920s
-He wanted to return Fascism to its violent origins e.g. Verona Manifesto as proposed in 1919 programme.

Nature:
-Anticlerical
-Nationalised industry
-cooperative state run by workers and management from February 1944 - all companies with more than 100 employees or more than 1 million lire would be managed by workers and employees.
-Brutality: 5 of the people who deposed Mussolini executed including Ciano. Verona Manifesto also declared Judaism a nationality and assisted in sending them to Camps. Around 7000 were executed from Italy.

Army:
-GNR; 200k men, air force of 28k. In total around 600k men.
-The army fought against partisans in the North.
-They were used to terrorise the population to route out Partisans.
-Policy by the Germans stated that for every German killed, 10 Italians would be killed - when 33 German soldiers were killed, 335 Italians were executed.-
-Estimated 10% of civilians killed in Italy was from the RSI.

Question 44

Government in the South: Army and Puppet State

Answer 44

Kingdom of the South: established by the King.

Puppet state:
-Had little say in its own policy and affairs
-King left the government as it was despite some discussion of a mass purge of Government.
-Left podestas and prefects in their positions as to keep the conservative elite happy and to resist communism.

Army:
-There was little contribution to the fighting under Badoglio .
-After occupation of Rome in 1944 Badoglio was replaced by Bonomi (antifascist liberal) who tried to conscript around 100k men to form an army.
-Conscription was largely ignored due to anger at the King and Bonomi.

Question 45

German Surrender and the death of Mussolini:

Answer 45

-RSI was never very popular and most Italians didn’t join but instead waited until it was over.
-Mussolini gave final speech in Milan despite his severe illness: he still managed to get cheering crowds.

By april 1945, the Allies captured major ground in northern Italy as Mussolini moved his capital to Milan (closer contact to those who might protect him?)

-Mussolini tried to negotiate surrender and retreat with Partisans (Mussolini would go north with 3k blackshirts, but these talks were ended when the Germans surrendered and he fled to Switzerland.
-He was discovered with Claretta Petacci in Dongo in a German convoy where he was then executed.
-The body was then driven to Milan where it was beaten by the public.

Despite his death, Northern fighting continued until the allies pushed them out. The Germans officially surrendered on 29th April, the day after Mussolini died and the day before Hitler did.

Question 46

Outcome of WW2: Immediate, Government, Referendum and Issues

Answer 46

Immediate:
-Infrastructure wrecked.
-Lack of food and clothing
-Around 500k dead Italians.
-30k revenge killings by the Partisans.

New government:
-Based on the ‘values of the resistance’ that had resisted RSI during war - (problematic as this was not relatable in the South, the South was essentially ignored by the New Government)
-Constituent assembly included women for the 1st time ever.
-Christian Democrats victorious in first elections gaining 207 seats out of 556 and PSI gaining 114 seats.
-The new constitution was a liberal democracy with civil freedoms guaranteed.
-Monarchy was replaced by head of state.
-Similar to Mussolini, the Lateran pacts were retained as part of the constitution.

Referendum 1946:
-Voted for new constituent assembly to decide a constitution, but also to decide whether Italy should be a republic.
-King abdicated for Umberto II due to his unpopularity - despite this, it was 12.7 to 10 million votes that established the Italian republic (every area in North voted for and every area in the south voted against)

Problems:
-Cold war meant unity did not last:
-Christian Democrats excluded the PCI in 1947 which broke the political unity form 1944.
-Most of the Government was still ran by fascists e.g. prefects, chief of police were the same as from Mussolini’s gov. well into the 60s.

1957: Massive crowds watched as Mussolini was laid to rest in his family tomb.