Review for exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the three parts of the brainstem?
A
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
1
Q
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
A
Part of the brainstem located above the ons and below the thalamus.
The main function is vision, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal, and temperature regulation.
2
Q
Pons
A
Part of the brainstem that links the medulla oblongata and the thalamus
Transmit signals between your forebrain and cerebellum.
3
Q
Medulla
A
transition from brain to spinal cord; drives essential processes such as respiration and heart rate; participants in some types of learning (fine, precise movements)
4
Q
Is the cerebellum part of the brainstem?
A
No!! it is directly adjacent to the brainstem.
5
Q
Why do sulci (furrows) and gyri (ridges) exist?
A
They allow for more surface area to fit within a small space.
6
Q
What is the thalamus
A
a main sensory relay and integrative center connecting with many areas of the brain, including the cerebral cortex.
7
Q
Does olfaction go through the thalamus?
A
Naur
8
Q
Sympathetic nervous system
A
(S=stress)
fight or flight
Part of the autonomic nervous system
9
Q
PaRasympathetic nervous system
A
(R=rest)
rest and digest
Part of the autonomic nervous system
10
Q
Afferent nerves
A
bringing information into the CNS
11
Q
Efferent Nerves
A
from brain to PNS
12
Q
How does information flow through the neuron?
A
- Dendrite
- Cell Body
- Axon
- Axon terminal
13
Q
What are the types of glial cells?
A
Oligodendrocytes
Schwann cells
Astrocytes
Microglial cells
14
Q
Oligodendrocytes
A
Provide myelin to neurons in CNS
15
Q
Schwann cells
A
provides myelin to neurons in the PNS
16
Q
Astrocytes
A
Part of the blood brain barrier supplying nutrients and oxygen from blood to neurons.
17
Q
Microglial cells
A
remove debris from injured or dead cells. (tiny and mobile, cute!)
18
Q
What does the glymphatic system do?
A
Drains waste in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during sleep
19
Q
What is a stroke?
A
A rupture (hemorrhage) or blockage (ischemia) of blood vessels
Isch=restrain
emia=blood
20
Q
Does correlation equal causation? Give me an example
A
Correlation does not equal causation. Example, Alzheimer’s disease and amyloid beta plaques
21
Q
Independent variable
A
variable being manipulated (Ex: amount of water given)
22
Q
Dependent variable
A
Variable being measured. DEPENDS on the independent variable (Ex: amount of water given)
23
Q
CT scan
A
Computerized axial tomography.
- Measures x-ray absorption at several positions around the head.
- CT scans generate an anatomical map of the brain based on tissue density.
24
PET scan
Gives images of brain activity
- Inject radioactive substance (glucose) into the bloodstream, which is then taken up by active parts of the brain.
25
DTI (Diffusion tensor imaging)
A form of MRI technique that provides detailed information about the structure and integrity of white matter tracts in the brain.
26
FMRI
Measures brain activation by detecting the increase in oxygen levels in active structures
27
Electrostatic pressure
ions flow towards areas of the opposite charge (negative and positive attract ex: magnet)
28
Diffusion:
ions spread out through a concentration gradient.
Like dye in water
29
When you're at membrane potential you have what kind of balance?
equilibrium balance.
30
All or non property
either axon will fire, or it won't. Stimulus intensity is encoded through the number of action potentials generated, not the amplitude
- Like flushing a toilet.
31
Saltatory conduction
action potential jumps from node of ranvier to node of ranvier through myelinated axons
32
What does myelin do to conduction?
Speed it up
33
Voltage gated Sodium (Na+) channels
tubular, membrane spanning protein, the central Na+ pore is gated.
34
Action potentials
Threshold, depolarization, overshoot, repolarization, refractory period, hyperpolarization, resting state
35
What is a ligand?
Molecule that binds to a receptor. Could be a drug or neurotransmitter.
36
Enzyme degradation
enzymes break down neurotransmitter left in the synaptic cleft.
37
Reuptake
neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron through transporters.
Recycling: taken back up to repackaged and reused.
38
How is it determined if a neuron is excitatory or inhibitory?
Receptors on the postsynaptic neuron determine
39
Spatial summation
sum of potentials from various locations (location)
40
Temporal summation
sum of potentials following in quick succession (timing)
41
what's the main inhibitory neurotransmitter?
GABA
42
What's the main excitatory neurotransmitter?
Glutamate
43
What does dopamine do?
Reward, addiction,schizophrenia. It gives you feelings of pleasure, satisfaction and motivation.
44
where is dopamine typically found?
Substantia nigra
45
Acetylcholine
Responsible for muscle contraction
46
Where is acetylcholine mostly found?
Basal forebrain
47
mesostriatal pathway
Originates in substantia nigra and is involved with Parkinson's disease
48
Mesolimbocortical pathway
(reinforcement learning)
Originates in the ventral tegmental are (VTA)
49
Agonist
Bind to and activate receptors
50
Antagonist
bind to and block receptors
51
Curare and bungarotoxin
acetylcholine antagonist (prevent muscle contraction)
52
The amount of drug bioavailable
free to act on the target- varies with route of administration.
53
How is a drugs effect determined?
how it is metabolized
54
Blood brain barrier
tight junctions between the cells of blood vessels in the CNS prevent the movement of large molcules; can limit drug availability
55
Binding affinity
the degree of chemical attraction between a ligand and a receptor
56
Efficacy
the ability of the ligand to activate the receptor once bound. (Low= antagonist) (High=Agonist)
57
Tolerance
Reduced efficiency of drug after many treatments.
58
Psychoactive drugs
can relieve sever psychiatric symptoms
59
1st generation antipsychotics (neuroleptics)
Block dopamine receptors
60
2nd generation antipsychotics
block both dopamine and serotonin receptors
61
Benzodiazepine
GABA agonists
62
Opiates
opium contains morphine, an effective analgesic.
Opiates bind to opioid receptors in the brain, especially in the periaqueductal gray
The active ingredient in poppies is opium
63
Cannabis
active ingredient is THC
impaired prefrontal functioning
- The brain contains specific cannabinoid receptors that mediate the effects of compounds like THC.
64
Caffeine
an antagonist involved in regulation of sleep.
Adenosine: increase toward the end of the day or with sleep deprivation.
Caffeine blocks adenosine effects. Increase the release of dopamine and acetycholine
65
Nicotine
acts as a stimulant
Acts as an agonist on nicotinic ACh receptors in the cortex, enhancing some cognitive functions, and the ventral tegmental area
66
Cocaine
acts by blocking the reuptake of monoamine transmitters so that they accumulate in synapses throughout the brain, boosting their effects.
67
Alchohol
acts on GABA receptors and dopamine mediated reward systems.
68
Seizure abnormal
synchronized electrical activity in the brain. Normal healthy brain activity is desynchronized!
69
Tonic clonic seizure
All throughout the brain, loss of consciousness. Accompanied by synchronized EEG activity all over the brain.
70
Genotype
sum of an individuals genetic information (ex: DNA) not prone to change throughout life
71
Phenotype
sum of an individual's characteristics (ex: eye color) constantly changing throughout life.
pheno= observe
72
Epigenetics
study of variables that alter gene expression without changing gene sequences
73
Hebbian synapse
(essentially learning) synapse can strengthen or weaken
"Neurons that fire together, wire together"
74
Cell differentiation depends on?
Cell-to-cell interaction and neurotrophic factor which prevents cell death (apoptosis)
75
Where does neurogenesis occur in the adult brain?
hippocampus and olfactory bulb
76
What part of the brain develops last?
The prefrontal cortex with synaptic pruning.
77
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
increased levels of amino acid phenylketonuria but can be treated with diet starting early in life. If left untreated it will cause intellectual disability
78
Fragile X syndrome
Intellectual disability with impaired synaptic pruning with excessive amount of immature dendritic spines
79
What happens if a vision impairment isn't treated?
If it isn't fixed within six months of birth, then the individual will have difficulty seeing faces.
80
Alzhimer's disease
- Neurodegenerative disease occurring later in life, associated with memory loss, and decrease in metabolism (normal aging doesn't have a decrease)
- Loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain
- Key features include amyloid beta plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles
81
Other names for the motor cortex
M1 or precentral gyrus
82
What does the motor cortex do?
Sends signals to direct the body's movement.
motor homunculus...
83
Other names for the somatosensory cortex
S1, postcentral gyrus
84
What does the somatosensory cortex do?
Receives touch information from the opposite side of the body.
Sensory homunculus...
85
Two regions of the nonprimary motor cortex
supplementary motor area (SMA)
Premotor cortex
86
Supplementary motor area (SMA)
Medial, and important for initiation of movement sequences, especially preplanned.
87
Premotor cortex
Anterior to M1 (precentral gyrus or motor cortex) and activated when motor sequences are guided by external events.
88
Cerebellum
damage here can result in decomposition of movement.
Varies from person to person depending on how much you use it.
89
Phasic receptors
Fast drop off. Lots of adaptation
90
Tonic receptors
little to no adaptation
91
Merkel disc
edges and points (used for braille)
92
Meissner corpuscle
fine touch
93
ruffian corpuscle
stretch
94
pacinian corpuscle
vibration and pressure
95
Mirror neurons
neurons active when an individual makes a movement or sees someone else making that movement, involved in empathy and may trigger specific movement
96
Polymodal neuron
processes input from multiple sensory systems (involved in synethesia)
97
Pyramidal system
used for conscious voluntary movement (moves from the frontal cortex to medulla, to spinal cord)
98
Motor planning
set of muscle commands that are established before the act occurs (ex: adjusting legs before pulling a lever)
99
Substance P
Peptide released in the spinal cord to boost pain signaling
100
Periaqueductal grey
endorphins are released from here during pain
101
Anterior cingulate cortex
emotional pain, pain info is integrated here. i.e., they feel pain but they don't care
102
Parkinson's disease
a movement disorder.
- Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
- Bradykinesia: difficulty initiating movement
103
Auditory stimuli are transduced through the?
bending of hair cells to produce action potentials and is conveyed to the brain using glutamate
104
Place coding informs of pitch through the location of?
Activated hair cells.
105
Where does high frequency (treble) ocur?
the base of cochlea
106
Where does low frequency (base) occur?
the apex of cochlea
107
Temporal coding
Encoding the frequency through the firing rate of neuron (timing/amount of firing)
We use both place coding and temporal coding for low frequency
108
Hearing loss
decrease in sensitivity to sound
109
Deafness
Loss of hearing to the extend that speech cannot be perceived
110
Conduction deafness:
no sound reaches the cochlea
111
sensorineural deafness
damage to the hair cells or issues with the vestibulocochlear nerve
112
Vestibular system
informs us of our location in space, motion, and balance
113
Motion sickness
conflict between the visual and vestibular system (sensory conflict theory)
114
Olfaction
- sense of smell (only sense to not go through the thalamus)
- an individual odor activated a unique combination of different receptor molecules allowing us to detect many scents, despite only have 400 receptors proteins
- emotionally tied
115
Taste
Detecting chemicals.
- Salty
- Sour
-Sweet
- Bitter
-Umani
Metabotropic glutamate receptors
116
Visual information flow
1. optic nerve
2. optic chiasm
3. optic tract
4. optic radiations
117
Right visual field?
from both eyes projects to left hemisphere
118
Left visual field?
from both eyes' project to the right hemisphere
119
What is the range of visual light humans see?
very narrow (300 nm to 800 nm)
120
Refraction
bending of light rays by the cornea and lens to focus on the retina
121
Accommodation
contraction of the ciliary muscles, adjusting the lens to project images.
122
Fovea
center of retina with high visual acuity (high density of cones)
123
Colorblindness
lack one or more cone type (more common in males because it occurs on the X chromosome)
124
Blind spot
lack of vision at the optic disc, where the ganglion cells exit to form the optic nerve (lacks photoreceptors)
125
Rods
low lighting photoreceptors
126
Cones
color vision photoreceptors
127
Dorsal stream
"Where" damage can result i optic ataxia, difficulty reaching for objects
128
Ventral stream
"What" damage can result in difficulty identifying objects and familiar people
129
V5
Part of the dorsal stream (cells are sensitive to motion)
130
Blindsight
cortical blindness but still able to unconsciously process some visual information (superior colliculus)
131
Macular degeneration
Most common age related form of visual loss involving deterioration of the macula. Retina damage.
