Retrieval and Recognition Memory Flashcards
A progression from one or more retrieval cues to a target memory trace through associative connections is known as…?
Retrieval
What is retrieval?
A progression from one or more retrieval cues to a target memory trace through associative connections
What is the aim of retrieval?
To make the target available
The aim is to make the target available
What does this apply to?
Retrieval
What are retrieval cues?
Bits of information about the target memory that guide the search
Bits of information about the target memory that guide the search
This is known as…?
Retrieval cues
What is target memory trace?
The particular memory we are searching for
The particular memory we are searching for
This is known as…?
Target memory trace
What are associations?
Bonds that link together items in memory which vary in strength
Bonds that link together items in memory which vary in strength
This is known as…?
Associations
A progression from one or more retrieval cues to a target memory trace through associative connections
a. Retrieval Cues
b. Retrieval
c. Associations
d. Target Memory Trace
b. Retrieval
The particular memory we are searching for
a. Associations
b. Retrieval
c. Target Memory Trace
d. Retrieval Cues
c. Target Memory Trace
Bits of information about the target memory that guide the search
a. Associations
b. Retrieval
c. Target Memory Trace
d. Retrieval Cues
d. Retrieval Cues
Bonds that link together items in memory which vary in strength
a. Retrieval
b. Retrieval Cues
c. Target Memory Trace
d. Associations
d. Associations
Arrange these in the correct order
Association, Target, Cue
Cue -> Association -> Target
The internal state of a memory, reflecting its level of excitement
This is known as…?
Activation level
What is an activation level?
The internal state of a memory, reflecting its level of excitement
What determines the accessibility of an item?
Activation Level
What does activation level determine?
The accessibility of an item
Activation Level increases when…?
Something related to the memory is encountered
How long does activation level persist?
Persists for some time
What is Spreading Activation?
The automatic transmission of “energy” from one memory to related items via associations
The automatic transmission of “energy” from one memory to related items via associations
This is known as…?
Spreading Activation
Spreading Activation is proportional to..?
The strength of connections
The internal state of a memory, reflecting its level of excitement
Does this apply to:
a. Activation Level
b. Spreading Activation
a. Activation Level
Proportional to the strength of connections
Does this apply to:
a. Activation Level
b. Spreading Activation
b. Spreading Activation
Increases when something related to the memory is encountered
Does this apply to:
a. Activation Level
b. Spreading Activation
a. Activation Level
Determines accessibility of the item
Does this apply to:
a. Activation Level
b. Spreading Activation
a. Activation Level
The automatic transmission of “energy” from one memory to related items via associations
Does this apply to:
a. Activation Level
b. Spreading Activation
b. Spreading Activation
Persists for some time
Does this apply to:
a. Activation Level
b. Spreading Activation
a. Activation Level
Look at this example:
When you think of the word DINNER, you may also think about the PEAS thats you at last night which were OVERCOOKED
You may also think of having had dinner with your WIFE and she had MASHED POTATOES and you both talked about THE NEWS
These are examples of…?
List 2 points
1) Spreading Activation
2) Pattern Completion
How does retrieval happen in pattern completion?
It happens due to the reinstatement (via spreading activation) of features that represent a memory
It happens due to the reinstatement (via spreading activation) of features that represent a memory
What does this apply to?
Pattern completion retrieval
Features, provided as cues, will spread activation to other features
What will this lead to?
Completion of the missing components
The process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to the reinstatement of a memory
This is known as…?
Pattern completion
What is pattern completion?
The process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to the reinstatement of a memory
What is regarded as a hippocampal mechanism?
Pattern completion
Pattern completion is regarded as a ______ mechanism
Hippocampal
Factors determining retrieval success are all related to…?
The relationship between cues and target memory
The relationship between cues and target memory is related to…?
Factors determining retrieval success
What are the 7 factors determining retrieval success?
1) Attention to cues
2) Relevance of cues
3) Cue-target associative strength
4) Number of cues
5) Strength of target memory
6) Retrieval strategy
7) Retrieval mode
What does attention to cues suggest about retrieval?
Reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval
Reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Attention to cues
According to attention to cues, retrieval is less effective if…?
If cues are present, but not attended, or not attended enough.
Retrieval is less effective if cues are present, but not attended, or not attended enough.
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Attention to cues
Give one example of how we can reduce attention to cues?
Giving people a secondary task to perform during retrieval
What happens when you give people a secondary task to perform during retrieval?
They get distracted and their retrieval performance gets worse, especially if the secondary task requires them to pay attention to related materials.
In a dividing attention task, retrieval memory performance is reduced if the secondary task is…?
List 2 points
1) Related to the primary task
2) Demands a lot of attention
Dividing attention task:
During retrieval: Reduces memory performance, if
secondary task is:
1) Related to the primary task
2) Demands a lot of attention
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Attention to cues
Failing to note what word (e.g. “WATER”) you’re supposed to translate into Spanish impairs your ability to recall (“AGUA”).
This is an example of…?
Attention to cues
Describe an experiment assessing divided attention
List 2 points
1) Task 1:
Recall (or recognise) lists of words presented auditorily
2) Task 2:
Make judgments about visually presented items, which were either:
- Words
- Pictures
- Numbers
Here is an experiment assessing divided attention
1) Task 1:
Recall (or recognise) lists of words presented auditorily
2) Task 2:
Make judgments about visually presented items, which were either:
- Words
- Pictures
- Numbers
Describe the results (List 3 points)
1) Completing Task 2 reduced Task 1 performance by 30– 50%
2) Interference was greater when Task 2 items were words
3) Larger effect when tested with recall than recognition
1) Completing Task 2 reduced Task 1 performance by 30– 50%
2) Interference was greater when Task 2 items were words
3) Larger effect when tested with recall than recognition
These are evidence of…?
Dividing attention
Retrieving words under divided attention conditions _________ affects retrieval success, especially with distractor tasks (e.g., semantic or phonological) that are similar to the task of interest (in this case, recalling words)
a. Positively
b. Negatively
b. Negatively
Retrieving words under divided attention conditions negatively affects retrieval success, especially with distractor tasks (e.g., semantic or phonological) that are …?
Similar to the task of interest
What does relevance of cues suggest about retrieval?
Retrieval cues are most effective when they are strongly related to the target
Retrieval cues are most effective when they are strongly related to the target
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Relevance of cues
According to the encoding specificity principle, retrieval cues are most useful if…?
List 3 points
1) They are present at encoding
2) They are encoded with the target
3) They are similar to the original cue available at encoding
Retrieval cues are most useful if:
1) They are present at encoding
2) They are encoded with the target
3) They are similar to the original cue available at encoding
This was proposed by…?
Encoding specificity principle
The encoding specificity principle is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Relevance of cues
According to relevance of cues, having the right cues enhances…?
Retrieval
According to relevance of cues, the best cues are the ones …?
Present at encoding
According to relevance of cues, the best cues are the ones present an encoding
This is known as…?
Encoding specificity
What is encoding specificity?
The best cues to enhance retrieval are the ones present at encoding
The more similar the cues available at retrieval are to the conditions present at encoding, the more effective the cues will be.
This is known as…?
Encoding specificity principle
According to the encoding specificity principle, the more similar the cues available at retrieval are to the conditions present at encoding, the more ….?
Effective the cues will be.
The cue “EAU” isn’t useful in retrieving the Spanish translation, if you don’t know that “EAU” is French for “WATER.”
This is an example of…?
Relevance of cues
What does cue-target associative strength suggest about retrieval?
Retrieval success depends on the strength of cue-target association
Retrieval success depends on the strength of cue-target association
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Cue-target associative strength
Cue-target associative strength suggests that retrieval success is determined by…?
1) The length of time spent on encoding the relationship
2) Attention spent on encoding the relationship
Retrieval success is determined by the length of time and attention spent on encoding the relationship
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Cue-target associative strength
Encoding the cue and the target separately is unhelpful for retrieval
Cue-target associative strength
Encoding the cue and the target separately is…?
a. Unhelpful
b. Helpful
a. Unhelpful
When cue-target associative strength is low, people often can compensate by …?
Engaging cognitive control processes to facilitate retrieval
When cue-target associative strength is low, people often can compensate by engaging cognitive control processes to facilitate retrieval
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Cue-target associative strength
Being only vaguely familiar with the link between “WATER” and “AGUA” (represented by the dotted arrow) limits its usefulness as a cue.
This is an example of…?
Cue-target associative strength
Face-name association is an example of…?
Cue-target associative strength
Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Number of cues
Activation spreads from both ____ to ____, facilitating retrieval
From cues to the target
Cueing multiple access routes to a target (extra cues) can provide a super-additive recall benefit
This is known as…?
Dual-cuing
According to dual-cuing, cueing multiple access routes to a target (extra cues) can provide …?
A super-additive recall benefit
According to dual-cuing, elaborative encoding ______ the number of retrieval routes
a. Maximises
b. Minimises
a. Maximises
According to dual-cuing, elaborative encoding maximises the number of ______?
Retrieval routes
Dual-cuing
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Number of cues
An extra hint, like the first letter of the target word, facilitates retrieval.
This is an example of…?
Number of cues (Dual-cuing)
Describe the experiment and results by Rubin and Wallace (1989) investigating the effects of dual-cuing
List 3 points
1) Ps were presented with a cue “mythical being” and 14 % retrieved the word “ghost”
2) Ps were presented with a different cue “POST” and 19% retrieved the word “ghost”
3) Ps were presented with both cues “mythical being” and “POST” and 97% retrieved the word “ghost”
1) Ps were presented with a cue “mythical being” and 14 % retrieved the word “ghost”
2) Ps were presented with a different cue “POST” and 19% retrieved the word “ghost”
3) Ps were presented with both cues “mythical being” and “POST” and 97% retrieved the word “ghost”
What does this suggest?
Cueing multiple access routes to a target (extra cues) can provide a super-additive recall benefit
Weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Strength of target memory
What does the number of cues suggest about retrieval?
Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval
What does the strength of target memory suggest about retrieval?
Weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve
According to the strength of target memory, when targets start at a lower activation level, they require…?
A greater boost in activation to be retrieved
When the targets start at a lower activation level, they require a greater boost in activation to be retrieved
What does this explain?
It explains the word frequency effect on recall
Why is there a word frequency effect on recall?
Because when the targets start at a lower activation level, they require a greater boost in activation to be retrieved
More frequent target words start with higher activation level and are more easily retrieved
Which words are more easily retrieved?
a. More frequent target words
b. Less frequent target words
a. More frequent target words
Which words are more easily retrieved?
a. Words with a lower activation level
b. Words with a higher activation level
b. Words with a higher activation level
Explains the word frequency effect on recall
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Strength of target memory
True or False?
If a memory is weakly encoded, a good cue is sufficient to trigger retrieval.
False
If a memory is weakly encoded, even a good cue may be insufficient to trigger retrieval.
The strength of a memory depends, on how effectively people engage which region of the brain?
1) The hippocampus
2) Other structures within the medial temporal lobes
Having only a weak representation of “AGUA” limits your ability to retrieve it, even when presented with a strong cue.
This is an example of…?
Strength of target memory
What does retrieval strategy suggest about retrieval?
Retrieval can be influenced by the strategy one adopts
According to retrieval strategy, retrieval success is increased by 2 things
What are they?
1) The organisation of materials at encoding
2) Adopting efficient strategies of memory search
According to retrieval strategy, adopting a new perspective/strategy can facilitate recall of …?
Different objects previously forgotten
After studying a word list, Ps might try to recall the words by working through the alphabet and retrieving items associated with each letter.
If materials are organised at encoding, going through that organisation at retrieval would be an ideal strategy.
In addition, which order to recall a group of items is also a strategy choice; should I start at the beginning, or go in reverse order?
This is an example of…?
Retrieval strategy
Recalling all sorts of Spanish beverages until you stumble upon the target word
This is an example of…?
Retrieval strategy
What does retrieval mode suggest about retrieval?
The cognitive set, or frame of mind, that orients a person towards the act of retrieval, ensuring that stimuli are interpreted as retrieval cues
The cognitive set, or frame of mind, that orients a person towards the act of retrieval, ensuring that stimuli are interpreted as retrieval cues
This is related to which factor determining retrieval success…?
Retrieval mode
What does the frame of mind do?
It allows interpreting environmental stimuli as episodic memory cues to guide subsequent retrieval
What allows interpreting environmental stimuli as episodic memory cues to guide subsequent retrieval?
Frame of mind
Frame of mind allows interpreting environmental stimuli as ________ to guide subsequent retrieval
Episodic memory cues
Describe Herron and Wilding’s (2006) ERP study results on retrieval mode
List 3 points
1) Having multiple episodic tasks in a row
gradually improves performance
2) Episodic retrieval implicated different brain regions (prefrontal cortex) than semantic judgments
3) It takes time to fully adopt the retrieval mode
Having multiple episodic tasks in a row
worsens performance
True or False?
False
Having multiple episodic tasks in a row
gradually improves performance
Episodic retrieval implicated different brain regions (___________) than semantic judgments
Prefrontal cortex
What is involuntary episodic retrieval?
Something “springs to mind”
When something “springs to mind” this is known as…?
Involuntary episodic retrieval
Encountering a stimulus without the intention to retrieve the target from memory, reduces the probability of eliciting the target.
This is an example of…?
Retrieval mode
Weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
g. Strength of target memory
Retrieval success depends on the strength of cue-target association
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
b. Cue-target associative strength
Reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
a. Attention to cues
Frame of mind allows interpreting environmental stimuli as episodic memory cues to guide subsequent retrieval
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
e. Retrieval mode
Retrieval cues are most effective when they are strongly related to the target (e.g., were present at encoding)
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
f. Relevance of cues
Retrieval success is increased by:
-The organization of materials at encoding
-Adopting efficient strategies of memory search
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
c. Retrieval strategy
Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval (such as elaborative encoding)
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
d. Number of cues
An extra hint, like the first letter of the target word, facilitates retrieval.
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
d. Number of cues
Having only a weak representation of “AGUA” limits your ability to retrieve it, even when presented with a strong cue.
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
g. Strength of target memory
Failing to note what word (e.g. “WATER”) you’re supposed to translate into Spanish impairs your ability to recall (“AGUA”).
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
a. Attention to cues
The cue “EAU” isn’t useful in retrieving the Spanish translation, if you don’t know that “EAU” is French for “WATER.”
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
f. Relevance of cues
Encountering a stimulus (e.g., pouring water) without the intention to retrieve the target from memory, reduces the probability of eliciting the target.
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
e. Retrieval mode
Recalling all sorts of Spanish beverages until you stumble upon the target word
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
c. Retrieval strategy
Being only vaguely familiar with the link between “WATER” and “AGUA” limits its usefulness as a cue.
a. Attention to cues
b. Cue-target associative strength
c. Retrieval strategy
d. Number of cues
e. Retrieval mode
f. Relevance of cues
g. Strength of target memory
b. Cue-target associative strength
What are context clues?
Retrieval cues that specify aspects of the conditions under which a desired target was encoded, including (for example) the location and time of the event.
Retrieval cues that specify aspects of the conditions under which a desired target was encoded, including (for example) the location and time of the event.
These are known as…?
Context cues
Why is retrieve of names easier when presented with pictures?
Because there is greater association between pictures of people and their names
What are the 4 key features of direct/explicit memory tests?
1) Ask people to recall particular experiences
2) Require a contextual cue
3) Reveal impaired performance in amnesics
4) In many cases rely on hippocampus
1) Ask people to recall particular experiences
2) Require a contextual cue
3) Reveal impaired performance in amnesics
4) In many cases rely on hippocampus
These are 4 features related to…?
Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
What are Direct/Explicit Memory Tests?
Tests that ask people to retrieve their past
Tests that ask people to retrieve their past
This is known as…?
Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
What are Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests?
Measure the unconscious influence of experience without asking the subject to recall the past
Measure the unconscious influence of experience without asking the subject to recall the past
This is known as…?
Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
What are the 3 key features of Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests?
1) Measure the unconscious influence of previous experience without asking the subject to recall the past
2) Priming: Recent experience with the stimulus improves performance
3) Reveal normal performance in amnesics
1) Measure the unconscious influence of previous experience without asking the subject to recall the past
2) Priming: Recent experience with the stimulus improves performance
3) Reveal normal performance in amnesics
These are 3 key features of…?
Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
What does priming suggest?
Recent experience with the stimulus improves performance
True or False?
Previous exposure with particular memory can influence the way we do a particular task
True
Ask people to recall particular experiences
a. Indirect/Explicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
Reveal normal performance in amnesic
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
In many cases rely on hippocampus
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
Require a contextual cue
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
Reveal impaired performance in amnesics
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
Measure the unconscious influence of previous experience without asking the subject to recall the past
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
b. Direct/Explicit Memory Tests
a. Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests
List the 7 types of retrieval tasks
1) Free Recall
2) Cued Recall
3) Yes/No Recognition
4) Forced-Choice Recognition
5) Stem Completion
6) Fragment Completion
7) Conceptual Fluency
List the 4 types of explicit retrieval tasks
1) Free Recall
2) Cued Recall
3) Yes/No Recognition
4) Forced-Choice Recognition
List the 3 types of implicit retrieval tasks
1) Stem Completion
2) Fragment Completion
3) Conceptual Fluency
“Recall studied items”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
a. Free Recall
“Fill in missing letters with a word that fits: MO_ _.”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
e. Stem Completion
“Name as many birds”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
g. Conceptual Fluency
“Which word did you study: APPLE or MONK?”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
“Did you study: DOG….APPLE….MONK?”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
c. Yes/No Recognition
“Fill in letters to make a word: A_P_E.”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
f. Fragment Completion
“What word was presented with DOG?”
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
b. Cued Recall
Indirect tests measure the influence of experience without asking the person to recall the past. These measures have a “sneaky” quality to them, in that they try to eliminate, from the participants’ viewpoint, any scent that they are memorizing, or, on the test, retrieving things.
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
Given a semantic category for retrieval
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
g. Conceptual Fluency
Relies on context the most heavily because people must retrieve an entire set of studied items without overt cues, freely in any order
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
a. Free Recall
Recognition tests are usually the easiest type of direct test, because they simply require a decision
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
c. Yes/No Recognition
Provides additional cues, and very often focuses on particular items in memory.
a. Free Recall
b. Cued Recall
c. Yes/No Recognition
d. Forced-Choice Recognition
e. Stem Completion
f. Fragment Completion
g. Conceptual Fluency
b. Cued Recall
List the 4 types of contextual cues
1) Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
2) Mood
3) Physiological
4) Cognitive
Collection of concepts one has thought about the event
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
d. Cognitive
Physical (pharmacological) state one was in during an event
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
c. Physiological
Emotional state that one was in during the event
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
b. Mood
Location and time cues during an event
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
E.g. Supermarker, Lecture theatre
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
E.g. Tired, drunk
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
c. Physiological
E.g. Sad, happy
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
b. Mood
E.g. Specific thought
a. Spatio-Temporal/Environmental
b. Mood
c. Physiological
d. Cognitive
d. Cognitive
Memory is _____-dependent
Context
How does context help with retrieval?
Context reinstates original encoding environment and facilitates retrieval
Principle of encoding specificity suggests that we encode info along with..?
Its context
Describe Gooden and Baddeley’s (1975) study on how environmental factors affects memory
List 2 points
1) Taught divers word pairs in one of two contexts: dry land or underwater
2) They were tested on cued recall in same or different environment
e.g. Group 1 divers studied word pairs on land and were tested on land
Group 2 divers studied word pairs underwater and were tested underwater
Group 1 divers studied word pairs on land and were tested underwater
Group 1 divers studied word pairs underwater and were tested on land
What was Gooden and Baddeley’s (1975) main finding in their experiment on how environmental factors affects memory
Material is (cued) recalled best in the environment it was learned
Simply = If the study phase was done on land, cued racall was better when it was also done on land compared to being tested underwater
Who proposed a study on context-dependent memory on land and underwater?
Gooden and Baddeley (1975)
Who proposed a study on context-dependent memory comparing noisy and quiet environments?
Grant et al. 1998
Describe Grant et al.’s (1998) study on how environmental factors affects memory
List 2 points
1) Ps studied words in either a noisy or a quiet environment
2) They were tested on cued recall in same or different environment
e.g. Group 1 studied in a noisy environment and were tested in a noisy environment
Group 2 studied in a quiet environment and were tested in a quiet environment
Group 3 studied in a noisy environment and were tested in a quiet environment
Group 4 studied in a quiet environment and were tested in a noisy environment
What was Grant et al.’s (1998) main finding in their experiment on how environmental factors affects memory?
Participants did better when the testing condition matched the study condition
E.g. = Memory performance was higher in the noisy testing condition if it matched the study condition in the noisy environment
Similar to context-dependent but relating to internal state/environment
This is known as…?
State- Dependent Memory
What is State- Dependent Memory?
Like context-dependent but relating to internal state/environment
State- Dependent Memory suggests that recall depends on…?
The match between the participants’ internal environment (i.e. physiological state) at encoding and retrieval
Recall depends on the match between the participants’ internal environment (i.e. physiological state) at encoding and retrieval
What memory does this apply to?
State- Dependent Memory
According to State- Dependent Memory, recall is best if encoding and retrieval both occur when…?
List 4 conditions
1) Drunk (Goodwin et al., 1969)
2) Under the influence of marijuana or caffeine (Eich, 1980)
3) Under the influence of exercising or at rest (Miles & Hardman, 1998)
4) State dependency disappears under recognition tests
What is Mood-Dependent Memory?
Recall depends on the match in mood states between encoding and retrieval
What is Mood-Dependent Memory about?
It is about the person/person match
Recall depends on the match in mood states between encoding and retrieval
This is known as…?
Mood-Dependent Memory
What is Mood-Congruent Memory?
When it is easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matches the current mood of the person
e.g. When you are happy, you are more likely to remember happier events
When it is easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matches the current mood of the person
e.g. When you are happy, you are more likely to remember happier events
This is known as…?
Mood-Congruent Memory
What is Mood-Congruent Memory about?
It is about the person/item match
Which individuals are likely to recall mostly unpleasant memories?
Depressed individuals
Depressed individuals are likely to recall mostly ________ memories
Unpleasant
Describe Eich, Macaulay, and Ryan’s (1994) study on Mood-Dependent Memory
List 2 points
1) Task:
Encoding/studying words in either a pleasant or unpleasant mood
2) Test:
2 days later, in a same or opposite mood prior to recall, Ps were tested on the words
Describe the main finding of Eich, Macaulay, and Ryan’s (1994) study on Mood-Dependent Memory
Free recall was vastly improved when mood states matched
e.g. Free recall performance in the test performed in the sad condition was better if the words were also studied/encoded in a sad condition
According to Cognitive Context-Dependent Memory, retrieval is better if…?
If the same cognitive features/tasks are involved
According to Cognitive Context-Dependent Memory, what 3 things occupy our attention?
1) Ideas
2) Thoughts
3) Concepts
According to Cognitive Context-Dependent Memory, memory is facilitated when ____ at encoding matches retrieval
Cognitive context
Retrieval is better if the same cognitive features/tasks are involved
Which memory does this relate to?
Cognitive Context-Dependent Memory
Memory facilitated when cognitive context at encoding matches retrieval
Which memory does this relate to?
Cognitive Context-Dependent Memory
Describe Marian and Neisser’s (2000) bilingual study on Cognitive Context-dependent memory
List 2 points
1) Memory cues/interviews were provided in either Russian or English
2) Ps were asked to recall life events from any period
Describe the main finding of Marian and Neisser’s (2000) bilingual study on Cognitive Context-dependent memory
Memories are easier to access when retrieval takes place in the same language mode as they were encoded.
E.g. Russian memories were better recalled if the interview was conducted in Russian
E.g. English memories were recalled worse if the interview was conducted in Russian
Memory is reconstructive
What does this mean?
List 3 points
1) Retrieved memories are not entirely intact
2) We have to “figure out” some aspects of the recalled experience
3) Reconstructive memory is the inferential aspect of memory
The inferential aspect of memory is known as..?
Reconstructive memory
What study did Sulin and Dooling (1974) conduct?
Study with Gerald Martin (unknown) or Adolf Hitler
What is recognition memory?
Deciding whether one had encountered a particular stimulus before
Deciding whether one had encountered a particular stimulus before
This is known as…?
Recognition Memory
Describe how Recognition Memory can be tested
1) Ps study words
2) They are then presented with the stimulus (i.e. target), unlike in recall
2) Ps have to discriminate between OLD and NEW stimuli.
Old = studied stimuli
New = non-studied distractors, lures, or foils.
3) P’s level of guessing and decision-making bias for accepting items as old are measured
A measure of the participants’ level of guessing and decision-making bias for accepting items as old.
Which memory does this apply to?
Recognition Memory
Which memory acknowledges the Signal Detection Theory (SDT)?
Recognition Memory
What theory is used to understand and explore recognition memory decisions?
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
The Signal Detection Theory (SDT) is developed from…?
Auditory perception
Describe the auditory task that can be used to test the Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
1) Ps had to detect a tone (signal) presented against background noise
2) The task can be hard or easy to detect
e.g. Sometimes the signal can sound very similar to the white noise
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task, when a signal was present and the Ps responded with “yes there is a signal playing”, this is known as..?
a. Miss
b. False Alarm
c. Correct rejection
d. Hit
d. Hit
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task, when a signal was present and the Ps responded with “no there is no signal playing”, this is known as..?
a. Miss
b. False Alarm
c. Correct rejection
d. Hit
a. Miss
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task, when a signal was absent and the Ps responded with “yes there is a signal playing”, this is known as..?
a. Miss
b. False Alarm
c. Correct rejection
d. Hit
b. False Alarm
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task, when a signal was absent and the Ps responded with “no there is no signal playing”, this is known as..?
a. Miss
b. False Alarm
c. Correct rejection
d. Hit
c. Correct rejection
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task of New vs Old sounds, when an old sound was played and the Ps responded with “the old sound is playing”, this is known as..?
a. Correct rejection
b. Hit
c. Miss
d. False Alarm
b. Hit
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task of New vs Old sounds, when an old sound was played and the Ps responded with “the new sound is playing”, this is known as..?
a. Correct rejection
b. Hit
c. Miss
d. False Alarm
c. Miss
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task of New vs Old sounds, when a new sound was played and the Ps responded with “the new sound is playing”, this is known as..?
a. Correct rejection
b. Hit
c. Miss
d. False Alarm
a. Correct rejection
According to the outcome matrix of the Signal Detection Theory auditory task of New vs Old sounds, when a new sound was played and the Ps responded with “the old sound is playing”, this is known as..?
a. Correct rejection
b. Hit
c. Miss
d. False Alarm
d. False Alarm
STD useful to understand how …?
List 2 things
1) How recognition decisions are taken
2) How to discriminate true memory from guesses
Memory traces have strength values.
What do these indicate?
How ”familiar” a stimulus feels
Memory traces vary in their familiarity based on…?
Attention at encoding and repetitions
New and old items are combined in a recognition task each having their own distribution on a …?
Familiarity continuum
New items are less familiar than old items.
But distractors can be …?
Quite familiar
e.g., they appear often or are similar to old items
What is the response criterion of STD tasks in recognition memory?
Items that surpass this are judged old.
It can be more liberal or strict
Everything more familiar than (to the right of) the response criterion (β) will be judged as…?
“Old”
Everything less familiar (i.e. to the left of β) will be judged as…?
“New”
Items will be judged as “old” when…?
Everything more familiar than (to the right of) the response criterion (β)
Items will be judged as “new” when…?
Everything less familiar (i.e. to the left of β)
True or False?
SDT can account for all recognition memory phenomena
False
SDT cannot account for all recognition memory phenomena
Low frequency words are better recognised (although high frequency words are better recalled!)
This is known as…?
Word frequency effect
What does the word frequency effect propose about low frequency words?
Low frequency words are better recognised
What does the word frequency effect propose about high frequency words?
High frequency words are better recalled
Which word is better recalled?
a. High frequency
b. Low frequency
a. High frequency
Which word is better recognised?
a. High frequency
b. Low frequency
b. Low frequency
What does the SDT incorrectly predict?
That low-frequency words should be less familiar
Recognition memory is based on two types of memory or processes (Mandler, 1980)
This is known as…?
Dual-Process theory
Dual-Process theory
Recognition memory is based on two types of memory or processes (Mandler, 1980)
A sense of memory without being able to remember contextual
information
This is known as…?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
a. Familiarity
Define Familiarity
A sense of memory without being able to remember contextual
information
Described by signal detection
This is known as…?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
a. Familiarity
Faster and more automatic
Which one does this statement apply to?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
a. Familiarity
Retrieving contextual details about a stimulus - like cued recall
This is known as…?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
b. Recollection
Define Recollection
Retrieving contextual details about a stimulus - like cued recall
Slower and more attention demanding
Which one does this statement apply to?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
b. Recollection
Involves no recall
Which one does this statement apply to?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
a. Familiarity
Involves cued recall
Which one does this statement apply to?
a. Familiarity
b. Recollection
b. Recollection
When Ps decided whether they remember the item being presented previously/know it was presented previously
This is known as…?
Remember/Know Procedure
Based on the Remember/Know Procedure, how do Ps remember the item being presented previously?
They recollect contextual details
Recollection of contextual details is a measure of…?
Recollection
Based on the Remember/Know Procedure, how do Ps know the item was presented previously?
Because the item seems familiar
Knowing the item was presented previously is a measure of…?
Familiarity
Recognition memory is based on 2 things
What are they?
1) Familiarity
2) Recollection
Context at retrieval and the degree of match to encoding context has major impact on retrieval success
True or False?
True
Retrieval can. betested in 2 different ways
What are they?
1) Explicit (direct) tests
2) Implicit (indirect) tests
Retrieval success is determined by the relationship between ____ and ____
Cues and target memories
