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YEAR 2 Cognition > Learning & Memory > Flashcards

Learning & Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Who proposed a scientific study of learning and memory?

A

Ebbinghaus

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2
Q

Who tested on himself in a study of learning and memory?

A

Ebbinghaus

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3
Q

How did Ebbinghaus study learning and memory?

A

Created nonsense syllables

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4
Q

What are nonsense syllables?

A

Pronounceable but meaningless consonant-vowel consonant items/words

e.g., caz, wux

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5
Q

e.g., caz, wux

These are examples of…?

A

Nonsense syllables

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6
Q

Who thought of the nonsense syllables?

A

Ebbinghaus

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7
Q

Pronounceable but meaningless consonant-vowel consonant items/words

These are known as…?

A

Nonsense syllables

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8
Q

Who explored the rate of learning and forgetting?

A

Ebbinghaus

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9
Q

What are the 3 things Ebbinghaus is known for?

A

1) Scientific study of learning and memory

2) Tested only one participant – himself on nonsense syllables

3) Explored the rate of learning and forgetting

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10
Q

What is the rate of learning associated with?

A

The Total Time Hypothesis

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11
Q

What is The Total Time Hypothesis?

A

The amount learned depends on the time spent learning

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12
Q

The amount learned depends on the time spent learning

This is known as…?

A

The Total Time Hypothesis

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13
Q

The amount learned is a function of the time spent learning

This is known as…?

A

The Total Time Hypothesis

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14
Q

If you double the learning time, you double the amount of info stored

This is known as…?

A

The Total Time Hypothesis

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15
Q

Describe a total time hypothesis experiment (List 3 things)

A

1) Lists of 16 syllables

2) The P learned a new list each day – reciting the
syllables at a constant rate

3) 24 hours later he recorded how much more
time (number of trials) he needed to relearn the list

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16
Q

1) Lists of 16 syllables

2) The P learned a new list each day – reciting the
syllables at a constant rate

3) 24 hours later he recorded how much more
time (number of trials) he needed to relearn the list

What is this experiment testing?

A

The Total Time
Hypothesis

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17
Q

1) Lists of 16 syllables

2) The P learned a new list each day – reciting the
syllables at a constant rate

3) 24 hours later he recorded how much more
time (number of trials) he needed to relearn the list

Describe the results of this experiment

A
  • Practice makes perfect
  • Learning is linearly related to the amount of study
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18
Q

True or False?

Practice makes perfect applies only to word learning

A

False

It applies not only to word learning, but also to skills

e.g., writing, chess, typing,
music etc

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19
Q

______ drives brain plasticity

a. Reading
b. Practice
c. Procrastinating
d. Sleeping

A

b. Practice

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20
Q

Describe structural plasticity

A

Brain undergoes structural changes in response to learning or environmental
demands

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21
Q

Brain undergoes structural changes in response to learning or environmental
demands

What is this known as…?

A

Structural plasticity

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22
Q

What influences structural changes in the brain?

List 2 things

A

1) Expertise (long practice)
2) New learning

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23
Q

Describe the London Taxi Drivers study (Maguire et al., 2000)

List 3 things

A

1) Compared brain volume in taxi drivers relative to
healthy controls

2) The posterior hippocampus of the taxi drivers was consistently larger

3) The size of the posterior hippocampus significantly
correlated with the time they have spent as taxi drivers

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24
Q

Maguire et al. compared brain volume in taxi drivers relative to healthy controls

True or False?

The posterior hippocampus of the taxi drivers was consistently smaller than controls

A

False

The posterior hippocampus of the taxi drivers was consistently larger

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25
Q

Maguire et al. compared brain volume in taxi drivers relative to healthy controls

True or False?

The size of the anterior hippocampus significantly
correlated with the time they have spent as taxi drivers

A

False

The size of the posterior hippocampus significantly
correlated with the time they have spent as taxi drivers

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26
Q

Maguire et al. compared brain volume in taxi drivers relative to healthy controls

True or False?

The size of the posterior hippocampus significantly
opposed with the time they have spent as taxi drivers

A

False

The size of the posterior hippocampus significantly
correlated with the time they have spent as taxi drivers

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27
Q

Describe Draganski et al.’s (2006) study on new learning and brain plasticity in medical students

List 2 things

A

1) Medical students scanned at three intervals

2) Before, during and after intensive exams

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28
Q

Describe the results of Draganski et al.’s (2006) study on new learning and brain plasticity in medical students

List 2 things

A

1) Increases in gray matter volume in the parietal cortex (A) and in
the posterior hippocampus (B)

2) These remained even three months after studying

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29
Q

Draganski et al.’s (2006) study involved having Medical students scanned at three intervals

True or False?

Results showed decreases in gray matter volume in the parietal cortex (A) and in the posterior hippocampus (B)

A

False

Results showed increases in gray matter volume in the parietal cortex (A) and in the posterior hippocampus (B)

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30
Q

Draganski et al.’s (2006) study involved having Medical students scanned at three intervals

True or False?

Results showed increases in gray matter volume in the prefrontal cortex (A) and in
the anterior hippocampus (B)

A

False

Results showed increases in gray matter volume in the parietal cortex (A) and in the posterior hippocampus (B)

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31
Q

Results showed increases in gray matter volume in the _________ and _______ in medical students

A
  1. Parietal cortex (A)
  2. Posterior hippocampus (B)
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32
Q

Draganski et al.’s (2006) study involved having Medical students scanned at three intervals

Results showed increases in gray matter volume in the parietal cortex (A) and in the posterior hippocampus (B)

True or False?

These effects went back to normal 3 months after studying

A

False

These remained even three months after studying

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33
Q

Changes in gray matter volume in the parietal cortex and posterior hippocampus are assumed to be part of the process that….?

A

The process that optimises
learning, but the structural changes are not perpetual

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34
Q

True or False?

Over time, the brain renormalizes the volume in the regions enhanced by practice

A

True

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35
Q

True or False?

All structural changes (related to learning a task) are dropped (expansions normalization hypothesis)

A

False

Some structural changes (related to learning a task) may be selected
and others dropped (expansions normalization hypothesis)

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36
Q

What is the expansions normalisation hypothesis?

A

Over time, the brain renormalizes the volume in the regions enhanced by practice

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37
Q

Over time, the brain renormalizes the volume in the regions enhanced by practice

This is known as…?

A

Expansions normalization hypothesis

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38
Q

True or False?

Simple repetition with no attempt to organize the material leads to learning

A

False

Simple repetition with no attempt to organize the material might not lead to learning

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39
Q

The engagement (with full concentration) in a training activity that is designed to improve a particular aspect of performance, including immediate feedback, opportunities for graduate refinement over repetitions, and problem solving.

This is known as…?

A

Deliberate practice

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40
Q

Describe deliberate practice

A

The engagement (with full concentration) in a training activity that is designed to improve a particular aspect of performance

This includes immediate feedback, opportunities for graduate refinement over repetitions, and problem solving

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41
Q

Simple repetition with no attempt to organize the material might not lead to learning, especially if…?

A

The information is complex and is not perceived as useful

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42
Q

True or False?

We tend to learn information that is complex and is not perceived as useful more quickly with repetition

A

False

Information that is complex and is not perceived as useful might not be learned with repetition

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43
Q

True or False?

Memory and attention are very selective

A

True

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44
Q

Memory and attention are very selective

What does this mean?

A

Even after extensive practice/exposure information is not registered if not deemed important

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45
Q

What is distributed practice?

A

When we distribute learning trials sparsely across a period of time

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46
Q

When we distribute learning trials sparsely across a period of time

This is known as…?

A

Distributed practice

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47
Q

What does distributed practice help with? List 2 things

A

1) Faster improvement rates of learning
2) Less forgetting

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48
Q

What is a downside to distributed practice?

A

Distributed practice takes longer (i.e., less actual time but more days) – not always
practical or convenient

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49
Q

Does this apply to distributed practice or repetition?

It takes longer (i.e., less actual time but more days) – not always practical or convenient

A

Distributed practice

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50
Q

Describe an experiment by Melton (1970) on spaced learning of word stimuli increases subsequent recall

List 3 things

A

1) List of words (one at a time), some presented once and some twice

2) Those presented twice appeared after variable lags (from 0 to 40 intervening words)

3) Also varied the duration of the presentation of each word (1.3s, 2.3s, 4.3s)

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50
Q

Improved learning that arises from separating repeated study attempts compared to massing repetitions

This is known as…?

A

Distributed practice

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51
Q

1) List of words (one at a time), some presented once and some twice

2) Those presented twice appeared after variable lags (from 0 to 40 intervening words)

3) Also varied the duration of the presentation of each word (1.3s, 2.3s, 4.3s)

Describe the results of this experiment (List 3 points)

A

1) Benefits to memory occur despite total study time was the same between 2
word presentations

2) Only the spacing differed

3) Lag effect = benefit of repeated study increases as the lag between study
occasions increases

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52
Q

Describe the lag effect

A

The benefit of repeated study increases as the lag between study occasions increases

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53
Q

The benefit of repeated study increases as the lag between study occasions increases

This is known as…?

A

Lag effect

54
Q

In an experiment by Melton (1970), which condition showed better results?

a. Ps presented with words repeated twice with no intervening words

b. Ps presented with intervening words between the repetitions

A

b. Ps presented with intervening words between the repetitions

55
Q

True or False?

Adding intervening words between the repetitions is less affective than words repeated twice with no intervening words in memory performance, regardless of how many intervening words there were

A

False

Compared to words repeated twice with no intervening words (the 0 condition), adding intervening words between the repetitions leads memory to skyrocket, regardless of how many intervening words there were

56
Q

What is the downside to distributed practice?

A

Distributed practice is more efficient in terms of the benefit for the time invested, but it might not always be practical or convenient for the learner

57
Q

Describe the experiment by Kornell and Bjork (2008): Spacing and participants’ views

List 2 points

A

They wanted to know whether people can learn the style of an artist better by:

1) Viewing many paintings by that artist in a row

2) Interleaving paintings by the artist in question with paintings by other artists

58
Q

True or False?

Spaced presentation led to much poorer identification of new paintings by the same artist

A

False

Spaced presentation led to much better identification of new paintings by the same artist

58
Q

Kornell and Bjork wanted to know whether people can learn the style of an artist better by:

1) Viewing many paintings by that artist in a row

2) Interleaving paintings by the artist in question with paintings by other artists

Describe the results of the experiment (List 2 things)

A

1) Spaced presentation led to much better identification of new paintings by the same artist

2) Participants reported superiority of massed learning despite showing the opposite effect

59
Q

True or False?

Participants reported superiority of massed learning despite showing the opposite effect

A

True

60
Q

Why would people believe that massed presentations are superior when this belief is so at odds with what is actually true?

A

The most likely reason is that massed presentation is easier, and makes people feel like learning is going more smoothly

60
Q

What is the testing effect/generation effect?

A

The improvement in later memory for material that is tested

60
Q

The improvement in later memory for material that is tested

This is known as…?

A

The Testing Effect/ Generation effect

61
Q

True or False?

The benefit of repeated study decreases as the lag between study occasions increases

A

False

The benefit of repeated study increases as the lag between study occasions increases

62
Q

Describe an experiment by Karpicke and Roediger (2008) on The Testing Effect/Generation effect

A

They assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

63
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

What were the 4 groups?

A

1) Group 1 = ST
2) Group 2 = SnTn
3) Group 3 = STn
4) Group 4 = SnT

64
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

The first group was ST

What does this mean?

A

Word pairs repeatedly studied and tested

Simply = They were repeatedly presented and tested the entire list of 40 pairs over four learning trials

65
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

The second group was SnTn

What does this mean?

A

After successful recall, the word was not studied or
tested further

Simply = Dropped learned items from both later study cycles and later tests

66
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

The third group was STn

What does this mean?

A

After successful recall, the word was not tested (they continued to be studied)

Simply = Presented all 40 pairs every time for study but dropped out items gotten right on earlier tests from later tests, to focus quizzing on only the non-recalled items

67
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

The fourth group was SnT

What does this mean?

A

After successful recall, the word was not studied (they continued to be tested)

Simply = Dropping a pair from further study once it had been learned but continuing to test the person on all 40 pairs each time

68
Q

After successful recall, the word was not studied (they continued to be tested)

Simply = Dropping a pair from further study once it had been learned but continuing to test the person on all 40 pairs each time

Is this known as…?

a. ST
b. SnTn
c. STn
d. SnT

A

d. SnT

69
Q

After successful recall, the word was not tested (they continued to be studied)

Simply = Presented all 40 pairs every time for study but dropped out items gotten right on earlier tests from later tests, to focus quizzing on only the non-recalled items

Is this known as…?

a. ST
b. SnTn
c. STn
d. SnT

A

c. STn

70
Q

After successful recall, the word was not studied or
tested further

Simply = Dropped learned items from both later study cycles and later tests

Is this known as…?

a. ST
b. SnTn
c. STn
d. SnT

A

b. SnTn

71
Q

Word pairs repeatedly studied and tested

Simply = They were repeatedly presented and tested the entire list of 40 pairs over four learning trials

Is this known as…?

a. ST
b. SnTn
c. STn
d. SnT

A

a. ST

72
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

Describe the results of the experiment

A

Ps who continuously tested the words had better one-week retention than those with no continuous testing

73
Q

Karpicke and Roediger assigned 4 groups to learn Swahili-English word pairs over the course of a week (foreign langauge vocab learning)

Was was their conclusion?

A

The presence of tests had a major effect on what was remembered 1 week later

74
Q

True or False?

The presence of continuous tests had a minor effect on one week retention.

A

False

The presence of continuous tests had a major effect on one week retention.

75
Q

Which method leads to greater retention?

a. The effect shows that having to retrieve the answer

b. Being presented with the answer

A

a. The effect shows that having to retrieve the answer

76
Q

True or False?

Having to retrieve the answer, rather than being presented with, leads to poorer retention

A

False

Having to retrieve the answer, rather than being presented with, leads to greater retention

77
Q

What are the 2 issues with the testing effect?

A

1) Errors in recall when training may affect later recall unless corrective
feedback is provided

2) The erroneous retrieval may be strengthened in memory

78
Q

True or False?

Errors in recall when training cannot affect later recall

A

False

Errors in recall when training may affect later recall unless corrective feedback is provided

79
Q

In test-enhanced learning, Ps who were given feedback about their multiple-choice responses did worse than those who did not receive feedback

True or False?

A

False

Ps who were given feedback about their multiple-choice responses did even better later on

80
Q

Which group performed the best in recalling items?

a. Ps who received no test feedback

b. Ps who received immediate feedback (immediate feedback after each question)

c. Ps who received delayed feedback (all answers given after the test was over)

A

c. Ps who received delayed feedback (all answers given after the test was over)

81
Q

What term is used to describe this?

Studying the right answer immediately after a retrieval test improves memory far more than exactly the same amount of study time when it’s not conducted after a retrieval test

A

Test enhanced learning

82
Q

Describe test-enhanced learning

A

Studying the right answer immediately after a retrieval test improves memory far more than exactly the same amount of study time when it’s not conducted after a retrieval test

83
Q

True or False?

Retrieval practice alone had the biggest effect on memory

A

False

Retrieval practice combined with feedback had bigger effect on memory

84
Q

When investigating whether testing promotes deeper learning, what was Karpicke and Blunt’s (2011) key objectives of their study?

List 2

A

1) To examine whether retrieval practice benefitted later verbatim knowledge of the text

2) To examine whether retrieval practice benefitted performance on inference questions which required students to connect multiple concepts in the text

85
Q

Karpicke and Blunt (2011) investigated whether testing promotes deeper learning.

They split the Ps into 4 groups.

What were they?

A

4 groups studied a science text:

Group 1: Studied passage once

Group 2: Studied passage 4 consecutive times within the same session

Group 3: Studied text + created a concept map (graphical diagrams of concept relationships)

Group 4: Studied text + test (recall) immediately without any hints

86
Q

Karpicke and Blunt (2011) investigated whether testing promotes deeper learning.

They split the Ps into 4 groups and all studied a science text:

Group 1: Studied passage once

Group 2: Studied passage 4 consecutive times within the same session

Group 3: Studied text + created a concept map (graphical diagrams of concept relationships)

Group 4: Studied text + test (recall) immediately without any hints

What were the results? List 2 things

A

1) Testing (G4) promoted superior memory for facts but also inferential questions from the text

2) Students believed retrieval practice to be the least effective method of study

87
Q

Which group promoted superior memory for facts but also inferential questions from the text?

a. Group 1: Studied passage once

b. Group 2: Studied passage 4 consecutive times within the same session

c. Group 3: Studied text + created a concept map (graphical diagrams of concept relationships)

d. Group 4: Studied text + test (recall) immediately without any hints

A

d. Group 4: Studied text + test (recall) immediately without any hints

88
Q

Students believed _____ to be the least effective method of study

a. Rereading
b. Repetition
c. Retrieval practice
d. Rewriting

A

c. Retrieval practice

89
Q

What is the expanding retrieval method?

A

A combination of Spaced/Distributed Practice and Testing/Retrieval Practice

90
Q

A combination of Spaced/Distributed Practice and Testing/Retrieval Practice

This is known as…?

A

Expanding Retrieval Method

91
Q

Who came up with the Expanding Retrieval Method?

A

Landauer & Bjork (1978)

92
Q

What is the spacing effect?

A

Spaced presentation enhances memory

93
Q

What is the testing effect?

A

Successfully generating items strengthens memory than passive presentation

94
Q

Successfully generating items strengthens memory than passive presentation

This is known as…?

a. Spacing effect
b. Testing effect
c. Rereading effect

A

b. Testing effect

95
Q

Spaced presentation enhances memory

This is known as…?

a. Spacing effect
b. Testing effect
c. Rereading effect

A

a. Spacing effect

96
Q

Study and test
should be separated as much as possible

This is known as…?

a. Spacing effect
b. Testing effect
c. Rereading effect

A

a. Spacing effect

97
Q

The sooner an item is tested after initial presentation, the more likely it will be recalled
and strengthened

This is known as…?

a. Spacing effect
b. Testing effect
c. Rereading effect

A

b. Testing effect

98
Q

Motivation to learn may make learning more efficient in both _____ and ______ ways

A

a. Automatic
b. Strategic

99
Q

What is automatic motivation?

A

Having an external (e.g. reward) or internal factor (e.g. curiosity) that motivates you prior to exposure to stimuli

These factors improve memory even when time spent studying or strategies used are controlled

100
Q

Having an external (e.g. reward) or internal factor (e.g. curiosity) that motivates you prior to exposure to stimuli

These factors improve memory even when time spent studying or strategies used are controlled

This is known as…?

A

Automatic motivation

101
Q

What is strategic motivation?

A

People use deeper and more elaborate memorization strategies for high value items

102
Q

People use deeper and more elaborate memorization strategies for high value items

This is known as…?

A

Strategic motivation

103
Q

True or False?

How curious you are to learn something may affect your internal motivation to learn

A

True

104
Q

Describe an experiment by Gruber et al. (2014) on how curiosity during learning affects later memory

List 3 points

A

1) Ps went through screening phase of a bunch of questions. Ps made note of any questions that sparked curiosity

  1. Ps went through a study phase (where they studied the answers to the question in the screening phase)
  2. Ps were asked to recall the answers to each question
105
Q

When people were curious to know the answer to a question that they didn’t know the answer to, they showed significantly worse memory for the answer later on, compared to answers they weren’t curious about

True or False?

A

False

When people were curious to know the answer to a question that they didn’t know the answer to, they showed significantly better memory for the answer later on, compared to answers they weren’t curious about

106
Q

In an experiment by Gruber et al. (2014) on how curiosity during learning affects later memory:

1) Ps went through screening phase of a bunch of questions. Ps made note of any questions that sparked curiosity

  1. Ps went through a study phase (where they studied the answers to the question in the screening phase)
  2. Ps were asked to recall the answers to each question

What were the findings? List 2

A

1) Being curious made
memory better (Ps showed significantly better memory for the answer they were curious abour, compared to answers they weren’t curious about)

2) Enhanced memory for incidental material

107
Q

Internal motivation, such as curiosity only has a major effect on successful encoding for the item triggering curiosity

True or False?

A

False

Internal motivation, such as curiosity has a major effect on successful encoding, not just for the item triggering curiosity but for other incidentally presented stimuli

108
Q

Curiosity creates a powerful state that favours encoding of…?

A

New information (even incidental)

109
Q

All memory states have been shown to be associated with…?

A

Changes in a network of brain regions that critically involve the hippocampus

110
Q

Curiosity leads your VTA to enhance ______ release in your hippocampus

A

Dopamine

111
Q

Curiosity leads your VTA to enhance dopamine release in your _____

A

Hippocampus

112
Q

Curiosity leads your VTA to enhance dopamine release in your hippocampus

What does this explain?

A

People tend to easily recall something without much studying/practice when they are curious

113
Q

What does Hebbian Learning propose?

A

Learning involves strengthening the connections of co-active neurons

114
Q

Learning involves strengthening the connections of co-active neurons

This is known as…?

A

Hebbian Learning

115
Q

What did Bliss and Lomo’s study investigate?

A

Investigated whether repeated electrical stimulation at an axonal pathway/excitation of a neuron had longer-term effects on how the stimulated neuron communicated with its neighbors

116
Q

Describe Bliss and Lomo’s neurobiological study on long-term potentiation

List 2 points

A

1) They stimulated axonal
pathways

2) This led to lasting increases in the electrical potentials generated in post-synaptic neurons = long-term potentiation (LTP)

117
Q

Bliss and Lomo’s neurobiological study on long-term potentiation involved:

1) Stimulating axonal
pathways

2) This led to lasting increases in the electrical potentials generated in post-synaptic neurons = long-term potentiation (LTP)

Describe the results (List 2 points)

A

1) LTP is strongly represented in the hippocampus and surrounding regions associated with longterm memory

2) LTP also occurs in the amygdala supporting emotion-based learning and classical conditioning.

118
Q

LTP is strongly represented in the hypothalamus and surrounding regions associated with short term memory

True or False?

A

False

LTP is strongly represented in the hippocampus and surrounding regions associated with longterm memory

119
Q

LTP also occurs in the amygdala supporting emotion-based learning and operant conditioning

True or False?

A

False

LTP also occurs in the amygdala supporting emotion-based learning and classical conditioning

120
Q

Where is LTP (Long term potentiation of post synaptic neurons) represented?

List 3 areas

A

1) Hippocampus

2) Surrounding regions associated with longterm memory

3) Amygdala (supports emotion-based learning and classical conditioning)

121
Q

True or False?

The capacity to induce LTP in the hippocampus is not necessary to learn about and remember things

A

False

The capacity to induce LTP in the hippocampus is necessary to learn about and remember things

122
Q

How can learning involve strengthening the connections of co-active neurons?

List 4 points

A

1) Neurons repeatedly excited in synchrony

2) The chemistry of the synapse (gap) between
neurons changes

3) Each one becomes more likely to have
action potential when the other does

4) “Neurons that fire together, wire together.”

123
Q

What is this known as?

1) Neurons repeatedly excited in synchrony

2) The chemistry of the synapse (gap) between
neurons changes

3) Each one becomes more likely to have
action potential when the other does

4) “Neurons that fire together, wire together.”

A

Hebbian Learning

123
Q

What other factor may contribute to learning, other than strengthening connections of co-active neurons?

A

Intrinsic plasticity within neurons

124
Q

How does intrinsic
plasticity within neurons contribute to learning?

A

Intrinsic plasticity makes it more likely for a neuron to generate an action potential

124
Q

True or False?

Practice is important and is always the most efficient way of learning

A

False

Practice is important but not always the most efficient way of learning

125
Q

Learning is best when is…?

a. Distributed and is tested at intervals

b. Distributed and is tested all at once

c. Crammed together and is tested at intervals

d. Crammed together and is tested all at once

A

a. Distributed and is tested at intervals

126
Q

True or False?

Factors that affect internal or external motivation cannot enhance learning

A

False

Factors that affect internal or external motivation can enhance learning

127
Q

In the brain, learning depends on…?

A

Long-term potentiation

YEAR 2 Cognition (9 decks)

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