Emotion and Decision-Making Flashcards
What are the 2 (related) core issues of emotions and decision making?
- Are there universal “basic emotions”?
- What is the role of physiological change?
- Are there universal “basic emotions”?
- What is the role of physiological change?
These are the core issues of…?
Emotions and decision-making
What are the 6 basic emotions according to Darwin (1872)?
- Anger
- Fear
- Surprise
- Sadness
- Disgust
- Enjoyment
- Anger
- Fear
- Surprise
- Sadness
- Disgust
- Enjoyment
These are the 6 basic emotions according to…?
Darwin (1872)
What is the criteria for “basic” emotions according to Ekman (1992)?
List 5 points
- Rapid onset
- Brief duration
- Unbidden occurrence
- Distinctive universal signals
- Specific physiological correlates
- Rapid onset
- Brief duration
- Unbidden occurrence
- Distinctive universal signals
- Specific physiological correlates
These are the criteria for “basic” emotions according to …?
Ekman (1992)
What did Darwin’s (1872) ‘The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals’ argue about emotions?
List 2 points
- There are limited sets of “fundamental” emotions
- This includes anger, fear, surprise, and sadness, that are found across cultures and, indeed, species
- There are limited sets of “fundamental” emotions
- This includes anger, fear, surprise, and sadness, that are found across cultures and, indeed, species
Who proposed this?
Darwin (1872)
In the 1960s-1980s the limited sets of emotions are explored in more detail
Who explored this?
Ekman
(e.g., Ekman & Friesen, 1971; Ekman et al., 1983)
What did Ekman (1992) argue about emotions?
List 4 points
- Like Darwin, Ekman argued that that there are culturally-universal emotions
- Proposed Disgust, Joy, Fear, Anger, Surprise, and Sadness as “basic”, culturally-ubiquitous emotions
- Argues that these emotions have distinct neural and physiological signatures, although he is not necessarily claiming that the experience of (say) fear is a consequence of a particular profile of changes in heart rate, blood pressure, sweating etc
- He is not necessarily accepting the James-Lange view – he is arguing against Cannon’s objection to that view
- Argued that that there are culturally-universal emotions
- Proposed Disgust, Joy, Fear, Anger, Surprise, and Sadness as “basic”, culturally-ubiquitous emotions
- Argues that these emotions have distinct neural and physiological signatures, although he is not necessarily claiming that the experience of (say) fear is a consequence of a particular profile of changes in heart rate, blood pressure, sweating etc
- He is not necessarily accepting the James-Lange view – he is arguing against Cannon’s objection to that view
Who argued this?
Ekman (1992)
What did Russell (e.g., 1994) argue about regarding emotions?
He argued against a categorical conception of emotion
What did Russell (e.g., 1994) propose regarding the conception of emotions?
He proposed a single “core affect” comprising two dimensions:
- Valence (positive to negative)
- Arousal (low to high)
Different emotions might represent different points in this 2D space (e.g., sadness and anger are both negative valence, but anger involve a high level of arousal whereas sadness does not)
Who proposed this?
He proposed a single “core affect” comprising two dimensions:
- Valence (positive to negative)
- Arousal (low to high)
Different emotions might represent different points in this 2D space (e.g., sadness and anger are both negative valence, but anger involve a high level of arousal whereas sadness does not)
Who proposed this?
Russell (1994)
Who developed Russel’s (1994) approach?
Barrett (2006)
What did Barrett (2006) proposed about the construction of emotions?
The conceptual act theory (more recently rebranded the theory of constructed emotion)
What does Barrett’s (2006) conceptual act theory suggest about emotions?
List 2 points
- Suggests emotion is what happens when core affect is classified on the basis of existing conceptual knowledge
- In this view, we shouldn’t expect universal neural, physiological, or behavioural correlates of, say, “happiness”
- Suggests emotion is what happens when core affect is classified on the basis of existing conceptual knowledge
- In this view, we shouldn’t expect universal neural, physiological, or behavioural correlates of, say, “happiness”
What theory proposes this?
The conceptual act theory
Who put forward the conceptual act theory?
Barrett (2006)
Gendron et al. (2018) recently summarised the strength of evidence for the idea that there are…?
There are universal expressions of “basic” emotions, using data from the past 50 years.
What did Gendron et al. (2018) argue about the newer tests of emotion perception?
They lead to the conclusion that “facial movements are not perceived to have uniform meanings as emotion expressions”
Who argued that the use of newer tests of emotion perception lead to the conclusion that “facial movements are not perceived to have uniform meanings as emotion expressions”?
Gendron et al. (2018)
Who recently summarised the strength of evidence for the idea that there are universal expressions of “basic” emotions, using data from the past 50 years?
Gendron et al. (2018)
What is the James-Lange view of emotion?
We as humans experience:
- Stimulus
i.e. what you physically see in front of you - Percept
i.e. what you perceive the stimulus to be; e.g. a lion - Physiological changes
e.g. an increase in heart rate - Emotion
We as humans experience:
- Stimulus
i.e. what you physically see in front of you - Percept
i.e. what you perceive the stimulus to be; e.g. a lion - Physiological changes
e.g. an increase in heart rate - Emotion
Which theory of emotion proposes this?
The James-Lange view
“The bodily changes follow
directly the perception of the
exciting fact, and that our
feeling of the same changes
as they occur is the emotion”
Who said this?
James (1884) and Lange (1885)
Who discussed the role of physiology in emotion?
James (1884) and Lange (1885)
These authors independently asserted that emotions are the product of somatic change
James (1884) and Lange (1885)
According to the James-Lange view, a stimulus triggers…?
The activation in the cortex (corresponding to perception)
James (1884) and Lange (1885) independently claimed that emotions are the product of…?
Somatic change
According to the James-Lange view, a stimulus triggers activation in the cortex (corresponding to perception)
What happens next?
Signals are sent to the viscera
According to the James-Lange view, a stimulus triggers activation in the cortex (corresponding to perception)
Signals are then sent to the viscera
What does this produce?
Changes in physiological state which are detected and communicated back to the cortex, at which point the “object-simply apprehended” becomes an “object-emotionally-felt”
True or False?
According to the James-Lange view we tremble because we are afraid; we are afraid because we don’t tremble
False
According to the James-Lange view we don’t tremble because we are afraid; we are afraid because we tremble
Who claimed that emotions not dependent on physiology?
Cannon (1927)
What did Cannon (1927) claim about emotions and physiology?
Emotions are not dependent on physiology
True or False?
People without peripheral
inputs do not experience
emotion
People without peripheral
inputs still experience emotion
But perhaps not as strongly
True or False?
Peripheral arousal recreates emotion
False
Peripheral arousal doesn’t
recreate emotion
Peripheral arousal doesn’t
recreate emotion
Why?
Because they can occur separately
True or False?
Peripheral states are
sufficiently differentiated
False
Peripheral states not
sufficiently differentiated
- People without peripheral
inputs still experience
emotion (but perhaps not
as strongly?) - Peripheral arousal doesn’t
recreate emotion - Peripheral states not
sufficiently differentiated
What do these claims suggest?
Emotions are not dependent on physiology
Cannon (1927) claimed that separating the CNS from the viscera doesn’t abolish …?
Emotional experience
Cannon (1927) claimed that ________ lack the complexity to represent/discriminate the plethora of diverse experienced emotions
Physiological changes
Cannon (1927) claimed that recreating the somatic milieu of a particular emotion (e.g., raising the heart rate) does not produce the corresponding subjective experience
The corresponding subjective experience
Cannon (1927) claimed that separating the ____ from the ______ doesn’t abolish emotional experience
a. CNS
b. Viscera
Cannon (1927) claimed that physiological changes lack the complexity to represent/discriminate the plethora of _________
Diverse experienced emotions
Cannon (1927) claimed that recreating the _________ of a particular emotion (e.g., raising the heart rate) does not produce the corresponding subjective experience
Somatic milieu
What did Siegel et al. (2018) propose on emotions and physiology?
There’s little evidence for distinct physiological “fingerprints” for specific emotional states
i.e. it is difficult to predict specific emotions from physiology
What did Siegel et al. (2018) use in their meta-analysis of 202 studies on emotions and physiology?
Multivariate Pattern Classification Analysis
A form of machine learning that seeks to optimise the ability to classify objects (in this case emotional states) on the basis of information about them (in this case a wide range of physiological indicators)
What did Siegel et al. (2018) find in their meta-analysis of 202 studies on emotions and physiology?
List 3 points
- Accuracy was relatively low
e.g., only 5 out of 38 instances of “disgust” were correctly predicted on the basis of the physiological variables
- Across all emotions, the analysis correctly identified 76 out of 241 cases (31.5% correct)
3) But a score of 75/241 would have been obtained by guessing “angry” every time, so this is not especially impressive
What did Siegel et al. (2018) conclude about their findings on their meta-analysis of 202 studies on emotions and physiology?
List 2 points
- The most robust finding in the analysis was the observation of 4 substantial variation in ANS (autonomic nervous system) responding during instances of the same emotion category
- An emotion category is a population of context-specific, highly variable instances that need not share an ANS fingerprint
According to Siegel et al. (2018), an emotion category is a population of ____, highly variable instances that do not share an ANS fingerprint
Context-specific
According to Siegel et al. (2018), an emotion category is a population of context specific, highly variable instances that do not share …?
An ANS fingerprint
What did Schachter and Singer (1962) argue about emotions?
The effect of somatic arousal depends on its attribution (on how it is interpreted given the social and other context)
Describe Schachter and Singer’s (1962) study demonstrating how the effect of somatic arousal depends on its attribution
List 3 points
- Ps were administered adrenaline under the belief that it was a vitamin shot,
- Ps were placed with a confederate who behaved in either a euphoric or angry fashion
- Ps’ behaviours were observed
In Schachter and Singer’s (1962) study:
- Ps were administered adrenaline under the belief that it was a vitamin shot,
- Ps were placed with a confederate who behaved in either a euphoric or angry fashion
- Some Ps were informed that the injection might produce changes in heart rate, sweating; the rest of the Ps were “naïve
- Ps’ behaviours were observed
What were the results? List 4 points
- Naïve Ps reported more negative affect in the latter
- Naïve Ps also exhibited more aggressive/negative behaviours
- Ps who had been informed did not exhibited aggressive/negative behaviours
- Ps who had been informed reported more positive affect in the negative emotional context
What was the main limitation of Schachter and Singer’s (1962) study?
The results may not be very robust
What did Zajonc et al. (1980) propose about emotions?
They rejected the role of cognition in emotion
Proposed that “preferences need no inferences”
Zajonc et al. (1980) rejected the role of cognition in emotion
Why?
Stimuli which have been previously encountered elicit more positive affect than those which are novel, even when there is no “conscious” awareness of the past exposure
Zajonc et al. (1980) argued that “preferences need no inferences”
What did Scherer (1984) argue about emotions and cognition?
Cognitive appraisals that underlie emotion do not need be conscious
Scherer (1984) put forward various appraisal dimensions that are presumed to shape the evocation of emotion
List 4
- The extent to which an event is certain under one’s own control
- The responsibility of other people
- Requiring of effort
- Attention-capturing
There is broad consensus that emotion has…?
List 5 points
- A cognitive component (the evaluation of objects and events)
- A physiological component (changes in somatic state)
- A motivational component (action tendencies)
- An expressive component (facial and vocal signals)
- A subjective component (the feeling of the emotion)
Physiological changes are an important component of ….?
Emotion
True or False?
There probably aren’t clear-cut physiological “fingerprints” for specific emotion…
True
True or False?
There are simple, unidirectional causal pathways between the different components of emotion
False
There are not simple, unidirectional causal pathways between the different components of emotion
True or False?
Physiological changes are an important component of emotion
True
How can emotions influence decision making according to Lerner et al. (2015)?
By consciously or non-consciously evaluating information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action
e.g., choosing a particular gamble
According to Lerner et al. (2015), we evaluate information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action
What is this evaluation shaped by?
List 2 things
- Characteristics of the options
(e.g., the probability of winning each possible prize)
- The decision-maker
(e.g., the extent to which you value monetary rewards)
According to Lerner et al. (2015), we evaluate information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action
What is this evaluation process presumed to be shaped by?
One’s current emotional state
According to Lerner et al. (2015), we evaluate information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action
This evaluation process is presumed to be shaped by one’s current emotional state
What is this state shaped by? List 4 things
- Background emotions that reflect relatively stable aspects of the decision-maker (e.g., chronic anxiety)
- Transient, incidental
responses to external events (e.g., the news that you have just been promoted) - The characteristics of the options (e.g., the possible outcomes and their probabilities)
- The act of evaluation (e.g., it can be distressing to engage in a difficult choice, so your mood may worsen as you try to make the decision)
The characteristics of the options (e.g., the possible outcomes and their probabilities) may also themselves elicit ______?
Emotions
e.g., fear or excitement
What is the somatic marker hypothesis?
An influential account of how anticipated emotion shapes decision making
An influential account of how anticipated emotion shapes decision making
This is known as…?
Somatic marker hypothesis
What are amygdala lesions associated with in relation to emotion?
List 3 things
- Reduced fear conditioning
- Selective recognition of fear from face photos
- Lack enhanced memory for emotional components of narrative
- Reduced fear conditioning
- Selective recognition of fear from face photos
- Lack enhanced memory for emotional components of narrative
These are associated with…?
Amygdala lesions
______ arose from studies of patients with neurological damage – in particular, those with damage to the amygdala, and those with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex/ventro-medial prefrontal cortex
This is known as…?
The somatic marker hypothesis
The somatic marker hypothesis (SMH) arose from studies of patients with _________
Neurological damage
In particular, those with damage to the amygdala, and damage to the orbitofrontal cortex/ventro-medial prefrontal cortex
Patients DR and SE, with bilateral damage, showed selective impairment in the recognition of what emotion from from face photographs?
“Fear” from face photographs
But performance was normal for other emotions
Lesions to the amygdala abolish/reduce the acquisition of what kind of emotional responses to initially neutral stimuli which are repeatedly paired with aversive outcomes
Fearful responses to initially neutral stimuli
Patients with amygdala lesions show less declarative memory for ______ material
Emotional
The superior recall of information about _________ pictures (both pleasant and unpleasant) relative to retrieval of neutral information has been found to correlate with the size of the amygdala activation during encoding
Emotionally arousing
Participants were shown a slide show with accompanying narrative which included some emotional elements (scenes of surgery) and 24 hours later answered questions about what they had seen
Controls showed better memory for the most evocative slide than for the other slides; patients with amygdala damage did not
What does this suggest?
Patients with amygdala lesions show less declarative memory for emotional material
Patients with amygdala lesions show less declarative memory for emotional material
Describe a study that explores this
Participants were shown a slide show with accompanying narrative which included some emotional elements (scenes of surgery) and 24 hours later answered questions about what they had seen
Controls showed better memory for the most evocative slide than for the other slides; patients with amygdala damage did not
The superior recall of information about emotionally arousing pictures (both pleasant and unpleasant) relative to retrieval of neutral information has been found to correlate with …?
The size of the amygdala activation during encoding
What is damage to the vmPFC associated with in relation to emotions?
List 3 things
- No elevated skin conductance response (SCR) for emotional stimuli with
“social significance” - More likely to “overcome an emotional response” during moral dilemma
- Heightened emotional reactivity and hypoemotionality
- No elevated skin conductance response (SCR) for emotional stimuli with
“social significance” - More likely to “overcome an emotional response” during moral dilemma
- Heightened emotional reactivity and hypoemotionality
What are these associated with?
Damage to the vmPFC
vmPFC lesion patients show increased ________ (e.g., frustration, irritability) and decreased ________ (i.e., they are judged to be less responsive, show blunted affect, socially withdraw)
a. Emotional reactivity
b. Emotionality
When faced with moral dilemmas which pit the emotionally-charged sacrifice of one person against the greater loss of other lives, vmPFC lesion patients were more likely to choose the _______ response
“utilitarian”
e.g., shoving one person under a train to save five others
Patients of vmPFC damage fail to show the elevation in _______ that usually accompanies viewing a socially-evocative slide image
Skin conductance response (SCR – a measure of sweating)
Selective impairment in the recognition of “fear” from face photographs (mean 4/10 correct vs. 8.6/10 for controls; performance was normal for other emotions
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
b. Damage to amygdala
Abolish/reduce the acquisition of fearful responses to initially neutral stimuli which are repeatedly paired with aversive outcomes
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
b. Damage to amygdala
Patients also fail to show the elevation in skin conductance response that usually accompanies viewing a socially-evocative slide image
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
a. Damage to vmPFC
Show less declarative memory for emotional material
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
b. Damage to amygdala
When faced with moral dilemmas which pit the emotionally-charged sacrifice of one person against the greater loss of other lives, patients were more likely to choose the “utilitarian” response
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
a. Damage to vmPFC
Show increased emotional reactivity (e.g., frustration, irritability) and decreased emotionality (i.e., they are judged to be less responsive, show blunted affect, socially withdraw)
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
a. Damage to vmPFC
The superior recall of information about emotionally arousing pictures (both pleasant and unpleasant) relative to retrieval of neutral information
a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala
b. Damage to amygdala
Damasio et al. noted that vmPFC patients often show impaired “real life” decision-making, but are indistinguishable from “normal” participants in terms of general intellect and performance on a range of neuropsychological tests
Give an example
For example, patient EVR “often decides against his best interest, and is unable to learn from his mistakes. His decisions repeatedly lead to negative consequences”
Patient EVR “often decides against his best interest, and is unable to learn from his mistakes. His decisions repeatedly lead to negative consequences”
What does this show?
vmPFC patients often show impaired “real life” decision-making, but are indistinguishable from “normal” participants in terms of general intellect and performance on a range of neuropsychological tests
vmPFC patients often show impaired ______ ?
“Real life” decision-making
vmPFC patients often show impaired “real life” decision-making, but are indistinguishable from “normal” participants in terms of ________ and _________ on a range of neuropsychological tests
a. General intellect
b. Performance
Prior to developing a tumour whose removal led to vmPFC lesion, EVR was a socially-respected and successful accountant. Post-lesion, he was sacked from a succession of jobs, entered various dodgy business arrangements, was left by his wife, re-married (against family advice) and divorced again
However, EVR’s performance on the Wisconsin card-sorting task is perfect, he is not impulsive, his short- and long-term memory seem to be normal, and so do other tests of intellectual function
Simply = patients with vmPFC have their memory intact but emotion and decision making ability worsened
Although Damasio notes that vmPFC patients do show a lack of emotional reactions in situations that would normally evoke them
True or False?
vmPFC patients do not show a lack of emotional reactions in situations that would normally evoke them
False
vmPFC patients do show a lack of emotional reactions in situations that would normally evoke them
Following a tumour and lesion to the vmPFC, patient EVR had normal intellect, impulsiveness, memory
and reasoning ability, but __________ and ___________
List 2 things
- Lacked emotional reactions
- Engaged in poor real-world decision-making
Describe Damasio’s Iowa Gambling Task
A model for real-life decision-making, where one must balance the possibility of big rewards with the risk of substantial losses
A model for real-life decision-making, where one must balance the possibility of big rewards with the risk of substantial losses
This is known as…?
Iowa Gambling Task
How was the Iowa Gambling Task conducted?
List 7 points
- Ps are given $2000 of toy money and confronted with 4 decks of cards, labelled A, B, C, and D
- Each card they turnover yields a reward; some also yield a penalty. The goal is to make as much money as possible
- Ps turn over a total of 100 cards, although they don’t know how many they will be asked to turn
- Every card in Decks A and B produces a large reward ($100) but the intermittent losses are hefty
- Deck A gives losses of -150 to -350 every two to three cards; Deck B gives losses of -1250 every ten cards
- Decks C and D give smaller wins of 50 but also incur smaller losses (-50 every few cards for C; -250 every 10 cards for D)
- In the long run, choosing C or D is more advantageous than choosing A or B
Describe Bechara et al. (1994)’s study on the Iowa Gambling Task
- Gave the Iowa Gambling Task to:
a. 6 patients with ventromedial frontal lobe damage (including EVR)
b. 9 patients with other types of damage (e.g., occipital lesions)
c. 21 matched healthy participants
- Gave the Iowa Gambling Task to:
a. 6 patients with ventromedial frontal lobe damage (including EVR)
b. 9 patients with other types of damage (e.g., occipital lesions)
c. 21 matched healthy participants
Describe the results of Bechara et al.’s (1994) study (List 3 points)
- The patients were more likely than the controls to choose the “bad” decks (those with high rewards but larger losses)
- Trial-by-trial analysis showed that controls initially sample from all decks and then gravitated towards C and D, whereas vmPFC patients continue to draw from A and B throughout the task
- Brain-damaged control participants performed in the same way as healthy participants
In the Iowa Gambling Task, Bechara et al. argued that vmPFC patients cannot explicitly keep track of the gains and losses associated with each deck and must …?
Develop a “feeling” for which decks are risky/profitable
In the Iowa Gambling Task, Bechara et al. argued that vmPFC patients cannot …. and must develop a “feeling” for which decks are risky/profitable
Explicitly keep track of the gains and losses associated with each deck
Brain-damaged control participants performed in the same way as healthy participants
Whereas mPFC patients continue to draw the wrong pile after many trials in the Iowa Gambling Task
What does this suggest?
There is something lesion-specific about the choices made by vmPFC patients
Describe the second study by Bechara et al. (1996) on the Iowa Gambling Task
Recorded the skin conductance response (SCR) of Ps as they played the Iowa Gambling Task
What is SCR (also known as galvanic skin response)?
A measure of sweating, and is taken to indicate physiological arousal
A measure of sweating, and is taken to indicate physiological arousal
SCR (also known as galvanic skin response)
Recorded the skin conductance response (SCR) of Ps as they played the Iowa Gambling Task
What were the results of Bechara et al.’s (1996) study?
List 4 points
- Reward SCRs (the reaction to the positive outcome that was initially revealed when participants turned a card) were similar for patients and controls
- Punishment SCRs (the reaction when the card also entailed a loss, which was announced after the reward) was similar for both groups
- There was a big difference in anticipatory responses – the arousal immediately before choosing a deck.
- Controls show more arousal immediately prior to choosing a risky deck (A or B) than before choosing a safe one (C or D); patients with ventral prefrontal cortex damage show no such sensitivity
Describe Berchara et al.’s (1999) third study on the Iowa Gambling Task
Used the IGT to compare patients with amygdala lesions to those with vmPFC damage
Used the IGT to compare patients with amygdala lesions to those with vmPFC damage
What were the results of Berchara et al.’s (1999) third study on the Iowa Gambling Task?
List 3 points
- Like the vmPFC patients, those with amygdala lesions did not learn to select from the good decks
- Like vmPFC patients, amygdala lesions abolished the anticipatory SCRs that preceded selection from a bad deck
- Unlike the vmPFC group, amygdala damage also eliminated the SCRs that accompanied the rewarding/punishing outcomes
In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps did not learn to select from the good decks
a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps abolished the anticipatory SCRs that preceded selection from a bad deck
a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps eliminated the SCRs that accompanied the rewarding/punishing outcomes
a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps show more arousal immediately prior to choosing a risky deck (A or B) than before choosing a safe one (C or D)
a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients
a. Control
In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps do not show more arousal immediately or sensitivity prior to choosing a risky deck (A or B) than before choosing a safe one (C or D)
a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients
b. vmPFC damage patients
What is amygdala involved in associating?
Associating particular stimuli or actions with affectively-meaningful outcomes
What is vmPFC involved in?
Crucial in re-activating these representations at the time of choice
Crucial in re-activating these representations at the time of choice
a. vmPFC
b. amygdala
a. vmPFC
Associating particular stimuli or actions with affectively-meaningful outcomes
a. vmPFC
b. amygdala
b. amygdala
Describe Bechara et al.’s (1997) study on what people are conscious of using the Iowa Gambling Task
List 2 points
- Ps participated in IGT but were interrupted after 20 trials (when the P had experienced some gains and losses)
- Every 10 trials thereafter, Ps were asked:
a. “Tell me all you know about what is going on in this game”
b. “Tell me how you feel about this game”
- Ps participated in IGT but were interrupted after 20 trials (when the P had experienced some gains and losses)
- Every 10 trials thereafter, Ps were asked:
a. “Tell me all you know about what is going on in this game”
b. “Tell me how you feel about this game”
What did Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses into? (List 4 points)
- Pre-punishment
- Pre-hunch
- Hunch
- Conceptual
Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods
What was the pre-punishment period?
The early stages, when people had sampled all 4 decks without encountering any losses
Neither patients nor controls generated anticipatory SCRs
Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods
What was the pre-hunch period?
After a few losses (around cards 10-20) controls begin to generate anticipatory SCRs but “all indicated that they did not have a clue about what was going on”
Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods
What was the hunch period?
After about 50 cards, normal participants expressed a “hunch” that A and B were risky and generated anticipatory SCRs when they selected these decks.
vmPFC patients did not generate anticipatory SCRs or express a hunch
Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods
What was the conceptual period?
By about the 80th trial, 7/10 normal participants conceptually explained why A and B were worse than C and D.
Even the 3 who did not reach this point continued to generate anticipatory SCRs and avoided the risky decks.
3/6 patients reached the conceptual period, but none of the patients showed anticipatory SCRs and all continued to favour the “bad” decks
The early stages, when people had sampled all 4 decks without encountering any losses
Neither patients nor controls generated anticipatory SCRs
a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch
c. Pre-punishment
By about the 80th trial, 7/10 normal participants conceptually explained why A and B were worse than C and D.
Even the 3 who did not reach this point continued to generate anticipatory SCRs and avoided the risky decks.
3/6 patients reached the conceptual period, but none of the patients showed anticipatory SCRs and all continued to favour the “bad” decks
a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch
a. Conceptual
After about 50 cards, normal participants expressed a “hunch” that A and B were risky and generated anticipatory SCRs when they selected these decks.
vmPFC patients did not generate anticipatory SCRs or express a hunch
a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch
b. Hunch
After a few losses (around cards 10-20) controls begin to generate anticipatory SCRs but “all indicated that they did not have a clue about what was going on”
a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch
d. Pre-hunch
What did Bechara et al. (1997) argue about what people are conscious of?
In normal individuals, unconscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does
Without the help of such biases, overt knowledge may be insufficient to ensure advantageous behaviour
True or False?
In normal individuals, conscious biases guide behaviour before unconscious knowledge does
False
In normal individuals, unconscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does
In normal individuals, unconscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does
Without the help of such biases, overt knowledge may be ….?
Insufficient to ensure advantageous behaviour
What is involved in the conscious element according to the somatic marker hypothesis?
List 3 points
- Retrieve facts
- Reasoning
- Decision
A given situation activates “dispositional knowledge” of the emotional experiences previously associated with the various options/outcomes
What hypothesis proposes this?
Somatic marker hypothesis
According to the somatic marker hypothesis, a given situation activates _____ of the emotional experiences previously associated with the various options/outcomes
“Dispositional knowledge”
According to the somatic marker hypothesis, a given situation activates “dispositional knowledge” of the emotional experiences previously associated with ____?
The various options/outcomes
What is involved in the unconscious element according to the somatic marker hypothesis?
List 2 points
- Retrieve dispositions /
emotions - (Unconscious) Reactivation of somatic states
- Retrieve dispositions /
emotions - Reactivation of somatic states
Are these unconscious or conscious elements according to the somatic marker hypothesis?
Unconscious elements
- Retrieve facts
- Reasoning
- Decision
Are these unconscious or conscious elements according to the somatic marker hypothesis?
Conscious elements
The ______ is seen as a key structure in storing dispositional knowledge
a. Amygdala
b. vmPFC
b. vmPFC
The vmPFC is seen as a key structure in storing such knowledge, whose activation is posited to trigger ____?
Autonomic responses
(including those which lead to skin conductance changes)
Nonconscious processes are argued to bias the more deliberative, “cognitive” decision-making that is based on _______ about past actions and outcomes
Overt knowledge
The vmPFC (and other structures, including the amygdala) are taken to play a role in “re-living” the emotional/somatic experiences associated with _______
Particular response options
Nonconscious processes are argued to bias ______ that is based on overt knowledge about past actions and outcomes
The more deliberative, “cognitive” decision-making
The vmPFC (and other structures, including the amygdala) are taken to play a role in “re-living” the emotional/somatic experiences associated with particular response options
These somatic changes – which may be outside conscious awareness – shape or bias …?
The conscious decision process
The vmPFC (and other structures, including the amygdala) are taken to play a role in “re-living” the ________ experiences associated with particular response options
Emotional/somatic
What is James-Lange view of emotion?
Emotion is presumed to result from the brain’s processing of somatic signals
Based on the James-Lange view of emotion, emotion is presumed to result from the brain’s processing of somatic signals
Damasio avoids the problems associated with a crude version of this idea by …?
Positing an “as-if” loop
Dunn et al (2006): “somatic markers can reflect actions of the body proper (the ‘body’ loop) or the brain’s representation of the action expected to take place in the body (the ‘as-if’ loop)
What does this mean?
The brain can construct a forward model of changes it expects in the body, allowing the organism to respond more rapidly to external stimuli without waiting for that activity to actually emerge in the periphery
The brain can construct a forward model of changes it expects in the body, allowing the organism to respond more rapidly to _____ without waiting for that activity to actually emerge in the periphery
External stimuli
What are the problems with the IGT and Somatic Marker Hypothesis?
List 4 points
- We may not need somatic cues
- Somatic cues may not signal outcomes
- No need to posit unconscious knowledge
- An alternative explanation for patient data
The brain can construct a _________ it expects in the body, allowing the organism to respond more rapidly to external stimuli without waiting for that activity to actually emerge in the periphery
Forward model of changes
- We may not need somatic cues
- Somatic cues may not signal outcomes
- No need to posit unconscious knowledge
- An alternative explanation for patient data
These are problems with…?
IGT and Somatic Marker Hypothesis
Describe Heims et al.’s (2005) study on whether we need physiological responses to perform the IGT task
List 2 points
- Examined patients with pure autonomic failure (PAF), which involves degeneration of autonomic neurons and failure of the autonomic nervous system to regulate bodily states
- e.g. Patients do not show increased heart rate or blood pressure when under stress, and lack skin conductance responses to emotive stimuli
- Examined patients with pure autonomic failure (PAF), which involves degeneration of autonomic neurons and failure of the autonomic nervous system to regulate bodily states
- e.g. Patients do not show increased heart rate or blood pressure when under stress, and lack skin conductance responses to emotive stimuli
What were the findings and conclusion?
- The PAF patients were significantly more likely than controls to select the good decks
- Certainly not
evidence that one needs somatic changes to signal which deck to pick
The PAF patients were significantly more likely than controls to select the good decks
What does this suggest?
We may not need somatic cues to perform the IGT task
What did Damasio et al. interpret the high SCRs that precede selection from the “bad” decks as?
Interpreted as being a somatic representation of the negative outcomes that will follow
Damasio et al. interpreted ___________ as being a somatic representation of the negative outcomes that will follow
The high SCRs that precede selection from the “bad” decks
What did Tomb et al. (2002) point out about bad decks?
List 2 points
The bad decks (A and B) don’t just have net negative outcomes, they also involve much larger amounts of money (both for wins and for losses)
The variance of the outcomes from these decks is higher
According to Tomb et al. (2002), what does the greater anticipatory SCRs reflect?
The uncertainty associated with selecting from one of these decks, rather than their long-run profitability
Describe Tomb et al.’s (2002 new version of the IGT task
List 4 points
- Now, the “good” decks had higher-magnitude/more variable outcomes than the “bad” ones
- A and B always returned $2250 but had mean losses of $1500 every 10 cards
- C and D had wins of $250 and mean losses of $1000 every 10 cards
- So now A and B are better than C and D, despite still having larger/more variable outcomes
Tomb et al.’s (2002 new version of the IGT task:
- Now, the “good” decks had higher-magnitude/more variable outcomes than the “bad” ones
- A and B always returned $2250 but had mean losses of $1500 every 10 cards
- C and D had wins of $250 and mean losses of $1000 every 10 cards
- So now A and B are better than C and D, despite still having larger/more variable outcomes
What were the findings?
In the modified version, people still chose the good decks (now A and B) but the SCRs were larger preceding selection from these decks
In the modified version of the IGT by Tomb et al. (2002), people still chose the good decks (now A and B) but the SCRs were larger preceding selection from these decks
What does Tomb et al. (2002) argue?
That anticipatory physiological responses do not signal that the deck is “bad”
Tomb et al. (2002) argued that anticipatory physiological responses do not signal that the deck is “bad”
What did Damasio et al. (2002) counter with?
List 2 points
- That in the modified version of the task used by Tomb et al. (2002), the anticipatory SCRs for the “good decks” signal their “goodness”
- But if the same physiological signals indicate both positive and negative outcomes, how can they be used to guide choice?
In the standard IGT, people most often chose _____ and generated larger anticipatory SCRs
a. good decks (C and D)
b. bad decks (A and B)
a. good decks (C and D)
In the standard IGT, people most often chose the good decks (C and D) and generated ________ when they selected from the bad decks (A and B)
Larger anticipatory SCRs
What did Maia and McClelland (2004) point out in Bechara et al.’s (1997) IGT study?
List 2 points
- “Good” and “Bad” decks are defined by the experimenter, based on the long-run expected returns of each
But rational behaviour from a participant should be determined by the experiences they have actually had prior to the point of choosing
E.g., if all past experience with decks A and B has been positive so far (because it’s early in the experiment and the punishments haven’t yet started) then these are the “good decks”
- The questions that Bechara et al. (1997) used to probe “conscious knowledge” are hopelessly vague
People might well be able to articulate their understanding of the outcomes associated with each deck if we asked them more sensitive questions
Maia and McClelland (2004) point out in Bechara et al.’s (1997) IGT study that:
“Tell me all you know about what is going on in this
game” was not a good instruction
What did they propose would be better instead?
For each deck:
- Rate from -10 to +10
- Estimate average net result
- Estimate average winning amount
- Estimate frequency of losses
- Estimate average loss
- Which single deck would you pick?
Describe Maia and McClelland’s (2004) version of the IGT task
List 3 points
- Ps were asked after trials 20, 30, 40… to answer a series of more penetrating questions, including rating how bad/good each deck is on a scale from -10 to +10, asking people to estimate the average winnings, frequency of losing, and average size of loss if they chose a given deck for the next 10 trials (allowing the authors to calculate people’s implicit “expected return”)
- Ps were asked for their own estimate of the “average net result” that would come from selecting each deck for the next 10 trials.
- The authors then looked to see whether participants’ responses indicated which two decks were “best” at each point in the study
Describe the results of Maia and McClelland’s (2004) version of the IGT task
List 3 points
- Ps explicit knowledge was good: typically about 18 of the 20 participants gave responses which indicated that they knew which decks were best, right from the first question period
- This level of performance was often higher than their behavioural performance –people continued to explore the risky, “bad” decks on some trials
- Looking specifically at trials where participants behaved advantageously (selected one of the two best decks, given their past experience), virtually all participants had explicit knowledge of which decks were best
- Ps explicit knowledge was good: typically about 18 of the 20 participants gave responses which indicated that they knew which decks were best, right from the first question period
- This level of performance was often higher than their behavioural performance –people continued to explore the risky, “bad” decks on some trials
- Looking specifically at trials where participants behaved advantageously (selected one of the two best decks, given their past experience), virtually all participants had explicit knowledge of which decks were best
What do these results suggest?
There might be “unconscious” knowledge (perhaps represented by somatic markers) that shapes decision making
But the data from Maia and McClelland (2004) show that we don’t need to posit unconscious knowledge to explain performance on the gambling task
What did Fellows and Farah (2005) point out about the IGT task?
List 2 points
- In the standard IGT, the first trials from all decks are wins; losses only emerge after several cards from a given deck have been turned over
- Patients with vmPFC lesions might do badly because the initial positive experiences set up a response tendency which they fail to overcome once the negative outcomes for the high-stakes decks start to arrive
Fellows and Farah (2005) point out about the IGT task that:
Patients with _______ might do badly because the initial positive experiences set up a response tendency which they fail to overcome once the negative outcomes for the high-stakes decks start to arrive
a. vmPFC lesions
b. amygdala lesions
a. vmPFC lesions
Fellows and Farah (2005) point out about the IGT task that:
Patients with vmPFC lesions might do badly because the initial positive experiences set up a _______ which they fail to overcome once the negative outcomes for the high-stakes decks start to arrive
Response tendency
What did Fellows and Farah (2005) do in their shuffled version of the IGT task?
They compared vmPFC patients with normal controls on the standard IGT and on a modified version in which the losses associated with each deck were made apparent within the first few selections
In Fellows and Farah’s (2005) shuffled version of the IGT task:
They compared vmPFC patients with normal controls on the standard IGT and on a modified version in which the losses associated with each deck were made apparent within the first few selections
What were the findings? (List 2)
- In the standard version, control participants chose from the good decks more often than did ventral prefrontal patients (62% vs 50%).
- In the shuffled version, there was little difference between the participant groups: both chose from the advantageous decks most of the time (68% for patients, 72% for controls)
- In the standard version, control participants chose from the good decks more often than did ventral prefrontal patients (62% vs 50%).
- In the shuffled version, there was little difference between the participant groups: both chose from the advantageous decks most of the time (68% for patients, 72% for controls)
What did Fellows and Farah (2005) conclude?
Patients show a deficit in reversal learning rather than a failure to associate particular choices with long-run negative outcomes
What is the name of Dunn et al.’s (2010) modified version of the IGT?
Intuitive reasoning task (IRT)
Who proposed the Intuitive reasoning task (IRT)?
Dunn et al. (2010)
Describe Dunn et al.’s (2010) intuitive reasoning task (IRT)
List 4 points
- On each trial participants selected from one of four decks and then had to guess whether the colour of their chosen card would match that of another card that was about to appear on-screen
A correct guess won money, an incorrect guess lost it
- The computer was rigged such that participants’ predictions were classified as correct on 60% of trials for decks A and B but only 40% of trials for decks C and D.
- Decks A and C involved relatively small wins/losses; decks B and D used higher-magnitude outcomes
Points won during the game translated into real financial rewards at the end
- Heart rate and electrodermal activity (skin conductance) were recorded prior to each choice. At the end of the task, the authors also probed people’s ability to assess their own bodily states – i.e., their interoception – by having them report how many heartbeats they experienced in a certain time period and comparing this with the true number, assessed by electrocardiogram.
The IRT avoids some of the pitfalls of the IGT
What are they? (List 3 points)
- Outcome magnitude/variability is no longer confounded with “goodness” of the deck
- There is no longer a fixed sequence of cards with a long delay before the first losses for the “bad” decks, so reversal learning is not an issue
- Moreover, with a separate group of participants the authors followed Maia and
McClelland’s (2004) approach to probing conscious knowledge of deck outcomes and found find little evidence for overt knowledge
They argue that the IRT really does tap “intuitive reasoning”, although probing and operationalising conscious knowledge is so fraught with difficulties that we should be sceptical about this
Dunn et al. (2010) argued that the IRT really does tap _______, although probing and operationalising conscious knowledge is so fraught with difficulties that we should be sceptical about this
“Intuitive reasoning”
What were the results of Dunn et al.’s (2010) intuitive reasoning task (IRT)?
List 4 points
- On average, people chose more from the “good” decks (A and B) than the “bad” ones (C and D), and their responses were unaffected by the size of the wins/losses
- Ps showed reduced electrodermal activity and slower heart rates prior to selecting from the good decks
- The difference between the anticipatory response to good decks and bad decks correlated highly with behavioural performance.
That is, people who experienced larger “warning” signals in their physiology made more advantageous choices
- Interoceptive accuracy moderated the relationship between anticipatory responses and performance: the effect of physiological warning signals prior to selection from a bad deck was more pronounced for people with good interoception
- On average, people chose more from the “good” decks (A and B) than the “bad” ones (C and D), and their responses were unaffected by the size of the wins/losses
- Ps showed reduced electrodermal activity and slower heart rates prior to selecting from the good decks
- The difference between the anticipatory response to good decks and bad decks correlated highly with behavioural performance.
That is, people who experienced larger “warning” signals in their physiology made more advantageous choices
- Interoceptive accuracy moderated the relationship between anticipatory responses and performance: the effect of physiological warning signals prior to selection from a bad deck was more pronounced for people with good interoception
What do these results suggest? (List 2 points)
- Physiological signals may guide decision-making, and that this is more pronounced for people who are “in tune” with these signals
- More broadly, there is widespread consensus that the amygdala and vmPFC play a key role in representing and associating rewards with actions
The SMH doesn’t offer a complete account of the role of _______, but the development and testing of the hypothesis has helped advance our understanding and clarify our thinking about this topic
Emotion in decision-making
True or False?
Sensitivity to somatic signals is not important in decision making
False
Sensitivity to somatic signals is important in decision making
True or False?
Psychological research has developed progressively more sophisticated conceptions of emotion
True
______ exert wide-ranging influences on decision-making
Emotions
Emotions exert wide-ranging influences on _____
Decision-making
________ is one bold attempt to connect emotion, physiology, brain structures, and decision-making
The somatic marker hypothesis
The somatic marker hypothesis is one bold attempt to connect 3 things to decision-making
What are they?
- Emotion
- Physiology
- Brain structures
True or False?
There are complex links between somatic states,
cognitive appraisals, and experienced emotions
True
There are complex links between somatic states, __________ and __________
Cognitive appraisals and experienced emotions
