Episodic and Semantic memory Flashcards
What is an episodic memory?
Memory for specific events located at a specific point in time
Memory for specific events located at a specific point in time
This is known as…?
Episodic memory
What is semantic memory?
Memory for facts
Memory for facts
This is known as…?
Semantic memory
Define Episodic memory
a. Memory for specific events located at a specific point in time
b. Memory for facts
a. Memory for specific events located at a specific point in time
Define Semantic memory
a. Memory for specific events located at a specific point in time
b. Memory for facts
b. Memory for facts
Which memory is known as “mental time travel”?
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
a. Episodic
Which memory is known as backward to relive earlier
episodes?
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
a. Episodic
Which memory is known as forward to anticipate & plan future events?
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
a. Episodic
Which memory is known as no mental time travel?
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
b. Semantic
Which memory does this apply to?
E.g.: World knowledge; vocabulary; rules etc.
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
b. Semantic
Which memory does this apply to?
Short delay: information is recalled in episodes
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
b. Semantic
Which memory does this apply to?
Long delay: the same information is integrated into semantic memory
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
b. Semantic
Information is recalled in episodes
This is known as…?
a. Short delay
b. Long delay
Short delay
The same information is integrated into semantic memory
This is known as…?
a. Short delay
b. Long delay
b. Long delay
Which memory is similar to a time machine?
Episodic memory
Which memory is based on knowledge?
Semantic memory
List 2 ways semantic and episodic memories are different
They are functionally different:
1) Different types of information
2) Different experiences
Describe the neuropsychological evidence supporting the claim that semantic and episodic memory systems are different
List 3 points
1) Spiers, Maguire, and Burgess (2001) —-> 147 cases of amnesia
2) Substantial or even dramatic loss of episodic memory
3) Semantic memory effects more variable and generally smaller
1) Spiers, Maguire, and Burgess (2001) —-> 147 cases of amnesia
2) Substantial or even dramatic loss of episodic memory
3) Semantic memory effects more variable and generally smaller
What is this an evidence of?
Semantic and episodic memory systems are different
Damage to the ____ (and the ______) affects episodic memory far more than semantic memory
a. Hippocampus
b. Medial temporal lobe
Damage to the hippocampus (and the MTL) affects _______ memory far more than ________memory
a. Episodic
b. Semantic
Hippocampal amnesia may affect ___________ more, than ____________
a. Acquisition of new semantic memories
b. Retrieval of old (remote) semantic memories
______________ may affect acquisition of new semantic memories more, than retrieval of old (remote) semantic memories
Hippocampal amnesia
What do Semantic Dementia patients struggle with?
Severe loss of concept knowledge but intact episodic memory (and intact cognitive abilities)
Severe loss of concept knowledge but intact episodic memory (and intact cognitive abilities)
This is known as…?
Semantic Dementia
Semantic Dementia patients have damage to 2 regions in the brain
What are they?
1) Anterior frontal lobes
2) Anterior temporal lobes
Damaged anterior frontal and anterior temporal lobes
Patients with these damages are diagnosed with…?
Semantic Dementia
Impaired access to facts and knowledge about the world
This is known as…?
Semantic deficit
What is semantic deficit?
Impaired access to facts and knowledge about the world
Inability to store new personal event and/or access to episodic detail. To somebody’s past
This is known as…?
Episodic deficit
What is episodic deficit?
Inability to store new personal event and/or access to episodic detail. To somebody’s past
Semantic deficit is affected by damages to 2 regions of the brain
What are they?
1) Anterior frontal lobe
2) Anterior temporal lobe
Episodic deficit is affected by damages to 2 regions of the brain
What are they?
1) Hippocampus
2) Medial temporal lobe
Are Episodic and Semantic memory systems …?
a. Codependent
b. Independent
b. Independent
True or False?
Many long-term memories consist of only episodic memories
False
Many long-term memories consist of a mixture of episodic and semantic aspects
True or False?
Episodic and Semantic memory dynamically interact and affect each other
True
Chunking and organising the elements of a long list of items (numbers in this case) may lead to worse encoding
True or False?
False
Chunking and organising the elements of a long list of items (numbers in this case) may lead to better encoding
Who investigated the recall of complex materials (e.g., drawings and folk tales)?
Bartlett
Who examined recall errors?
Bartlett
Unlike Ebbinghaus, Bartlett stressed participants’ …?
Effort after meaning
Who stressed participants’ effort after meaning?
Bartlett
Who gave meaning to studied materials as a better way of organising thought and eventually memory?
Bartlett
Bartlett gave meaning to studied materials as a …?
Better way of organising thought and eventually memory
Rather than study the gradual accumulation of information over successive learning trials, what did Bartlett prefer to do?
He preferred to use the errors that his participants made as a clue to the way in which they were encoding and storing the material
Define Schemas
Structured representation of knowledge about the world, events, people or actions
AKA = A longterm structured representation of knowledge that was used by the rememberer to make sense of new material and subsequently store and recall it
Structured representation of knowledge about the world, events, people or actions
This is known as..?
Schemas
A longterm structured representation of knowledge that was used by the rememberer to make sense of new material and subsequently store and recall it
This is known as…?
Schemas
What can schemas be used for?
They can be used to make sense of new material, to store and later recall them
What can be used to make sense of new material, to store and later recall them?
Schemas
What are schemas influenced/determined by?
Social and cultural factors
In Bower, Black, and Turner’s (1979) study, how many respondents reported these common events when going to a restaurant:
- Sit down
- Look at menu
- Order
- Eat
- Pay bill
- Leave
73%
In Bower, Black, and Turner’s (1979) study, 73% of respondents reported these common events when going to a restaurant:
List 6 main events
- Sit down
- Look at menu
- Order
- Eat
- Pay bill
- Leave
In Bower, Black, and Turner’s (1979) study, 73% of respondents reported these common events when going to a restaurant:
- Sit down
- Look at menu
- Order
- Eat
- Pay bill
- Leave
What other events did 48% of respondents also mention? List 9
- Enter restaurant
- Give reservation name
- Order drinks
- Discuss menu
- Talk
- Eat appetizer
- Order dessert
- Eat dessert
- Leave a tip
In Bower, Black, and Turner’s (1979) study, how many respondents reported these common events when going to a restaurant:
- Enter restaurant
- Give reservation name
- Order drinks
- Discuss menu
- Talk
- Eat appetizer
- Order dessert
- Eat dessert
- Leave a tip
48%
Describe the results of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts experiment
The War of the Ghosts (Native American folk tales), in which several features were incompatible with European expectations (or those of Americans unfamiliar with the North American Indian culture).
Hence, the supernatural aspect of the story was often omitted and people committed many errors and distortions when they asked
to recall these
In their recall made the story more coherent and omitted details
In Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts experiment, people made the story more coherent and omitted details when asked to recall the story
These distortions were more consistent with …?
Their own semantic knowledge
Simply = Features of the story that were puzzling to the readers were rationalised by distorting them to fit their expectations
In Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study, recalled stories from people were…?
Westernised
What was one of the criticisms of Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study?
He provided vague instructions to the Ps
After being asked to read a confusing passage, in absence of a title, participants recalled around ______ different units (ideas)
2.8
After being asked to read a confusing passage, supplied with a title “Washing clothes”, participants recalled around ______ different units (ideas)
5.8
Did Ps recall more different units (ideas) after reading a confusing passage when given a title or without given a title?
When given a title
Ps recalled more different units (ideas) after reading a confusing passage when given a title
What does this suggest about previous schematic knowledge?
Previous schematic knowledge is beneficial for later recall as it helps comprehension of the passage and organisation of its elements
Previous schematic knowledge is beneficial for later recall because…?
It helps comprehension of the passage and organisation of its elements
Simply = Previous schemas help us organise new info for easier recollection
Sulin and Dooling (1974) tested Bartlett’s theory, including his assumption that …?
Systematic, schema-driven errors will be greater at a long retention interval than after a short delay
Because schematic information lasts longer in memory than more detailed information in the text
Bartlett argued that systematic, schema-driven errors will be greater at a long retention interval than after a short delay
Why is this?
Because schematic information lasts longer in memory than more detailed information in the text
Describe Sulin and Dooling’s (1974) experiment investigating the role of schemas
List 3 points
1) Presented some Ps with a story about Gerald Martin: “Gerald Martin strove to undermine the existing government to satisfy his political ambitions … He became a ruthless, uncontrollable dictator.
2) Other Ps were given the same story but the main actor was called Adolf Hitler.
3) All Ps were tested with the sentence/asked if they heard this sentence in the story: “He hated the Jews particularly and so persecuted them.”
In Sulin and Dooling’s (1974) experiment investigating the role of schemas:
1) Presented some Ps with a story about Gerald Martin: “Gerald Martin strove to undermine the existing government to satisfy his political ambitions … He became a ruthless, uncontrollable dictator.
2) Other Ps were given the same story but the main actor was called Adolf Hitler.
3) All Ps were tested with the sentence/asked if they read this sentence in the story: “He hated the Jews particularly and so persecuted them.”
Describe the results (List 2 points)
Ps who were told the story was about Adolf Hitler were much more likely to believe incorrectly they had read the sentence, “He hated the Jews particularly and so persecuted them” after a long delay (1 week)
But there were no differences between the groups after a short delay (5 mins)
Participants who were told the story was about Adolf Hitler were much more likely to believe incorrectly they had read the sentence, “He hated the Jews particularly and so persecuted them” after a long delay (1 week)
But there were no differences between the groups after a short delay (5 mins)
What do these results suggest about schematic knowledge?
Their schematic knowledge about Hitler distorted their recollections of what they had read at a long retention interval but not at a short one.
Simply = Schematic knowledge may affect memory especially at longer intervals.
Schematic knowledge may affect memory especially at ______ intervals.
a. Shorter
b. Longer
b. Longer
Describe Carmichael et al.’s (1932) study on the role of meaning in memory
List 4 points
1) Ps were presented with the visual stimuli figures for subsequent recall
2) Each figure/item was sufficiently ambiguous as to fit two different verbal labels, for example a beehive or a hat.
3) Ps were either given verbal labels from word list 1 or word list 2
4) Ps were asked to draw the stimuli from memory
In Carmichael et al.’s (1932) study on the role of meaning in memory:
1) Ps were presented with the visual stimuli figures for subsequent recall
2) Each figure/item was sufficiently ambiguous as to fit two different verbal labels, for example a beehive or a hat.
3) Ps were either given verbal labels from word list 1 or word list 2
4) Ps were asked to draw the stimuli from memory
Describe the results of this study
Ps drawings were strongly influenced by the label they had been given
Simply = Ps given verbal labels from word list 1 were more likely to draw the stimuli figures based on the words in that particular list
Describe Bower, et al.’s (1975) study investigating the role of meaning on memory
List 3 points
1) Ps were shown meaningless patterns or “droodles”.
2) They were asked to freely recall the patterns
3) They were then asked to recall each droodle, accompanied by an interpretative label
In Bower, et al.’s (1975) study investigating the role of meaning on memory:
1) Ps were shown meaningless patterns or “droodles”.
2) They were asked to freely recall the patterns
3) They were then asked to recall each droodle, accompanied by an interpretative label
Describe the results of this study (List 2 points)
1) Free recall of these patterns was very poor
2) However, recall was greatly improved when each droodle was accompanied by an interpretative label.
These were the results of Bower et al.’s study
1) Free recall of these patterns was very poor
2) However, recall was greatly improved when each droodle was accompanied by an interpretative label.
What does this conclude?
Memory is aided whenever contextual cues during encoding arouse appropriate schemata
Simply = Ps recall the patterns much more effectively when provided with a story to support the droodles beforehand
e.g. This droodle looks like a vain triangle kissing its reflection in a mirror
To help us remember as many words as possible in a given list, what do we (unintentionally or intentionally) do?
We categorise/organise the words based on meaning
e.g. Apply, plum & cherry + Desk, sofa, table & lamp
______ words within the list tend to be recalled as a cluster/together
Related words
Related words within the list tend to be recalled as _______
A cluster/together
When Ps are given the opportunity to organise information in a meaningful way, memory performance is guided by __________.
Meaning
Memory performance is guided by meaning when…?
Ps are given the opportunity to organise information in a meaningful way
Who thought of the Dual-Coding hypothesis?
Paivio
According to Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis, what words are more memorable?
More imageable words (e.g., concrete nouns)
Which words have high imageability?
a. church, beggar, arm, apple
b. virtue, history, silence, hope
a. church, beggar, arm, apple
Which words have low imageability?
a. church, beggar, arm, apple
b. virtue, history, silence, hope
b. virtue, history, silence, hope
Words that were imageable, such as the name of concrete objects (e.g., crocodile), could be encoded in terms of ….?
List 2 points
1) Their visual appearance
2) Their verbal meaning
According to Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis, which words can be encoded in terms of Visual appearance AND Verbal meaning?
a. High imageability
b. Low imageability
a. High imageability
According to Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis, which words have 2 routes of encoding?
a. High imageability
b. Low imageability
a. High imageability
According to Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis, which words can be encoded in terms of Verbal meaning only?
a. High imageability
b. Low imageability
b. Low imageability
According to Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis, which words only have 1 route of encoding?
a. High imageability
b. Low imageability
b. Low imageability
A visual image of a crocodile could be generated and linked to one or more other imageable words from the list. If football had also occurred, you might imagine the crocodile biting a football
What is this an example of?
a. High imageability
b. Low imageability
a. High imageability
There are two routes to retrieval for imageable words or word pairs—visual and verbal—so if one route is lost the other might still survive and allow recall
True or False?
True
Multiple encoding routes worsens the chance of successful recall
True or False?
False
Multiple encoding routes improve the chance of successful recall
Multiple encoding routes improve the chance of successful recall
Why?
Because if one route is lost the other might still survive and allow recall, compared to only having one route and not being able to encode with it at all
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), the way in which material is processed powerfully determines _______
Its durability in long term memory
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), what are the 3 levels of processing?
1) Visual (structure; how the item looks like)
2) Phonological (acoustic; how the item sounds)
3) Semantic (meaning)
1) Visual (structure; how the word looks like)
2) Phonological (acoustic; how the word sounds)
3) Semantic (meaning)
These are the components of what hypothesis?
Levels of Processing
What did Craik & Lockhart (1972) suggest about how we process info, based on the levels of processing hypothesis?
List 2 points
1) They suggest that a word’s visual characteristics would be processed first, followed by the spoken sound of the word, and then its meaning.
2) They suggest that whereas each of these processes will leave a memory trace, deeper processes leave a more durable trace.
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), which is the most shallow level of processing?
a. Visual
b. Phonological
c. Semantic
a. Visual
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), which is the middle level of processing?
a. Visual
b. Phonological
c. Semantic
b. Phonological
According to Craik & Lockhart (1972), which is the deepest level of processing?
c. Semantic
True or False?
According to the Levels of Processing theory, deeper processes leave a more durable trace in the long term memory
True
According to the Levels of Processing theory, which process leaves a more durable trace in the long term memory?
a. Shallow (Visual)
b. Middle (Phonological)
c. Deeper (Semantic)
c. Deeper (Semantic)
Describe Craik & Tulving’s (1975) study investigating memory with different levels of processing
List 2 points
1) Ps studied words and were asked to make 3 judgments:
- Visual processing (e.g. “Is TABLE in upper case?” Y/N)
- Phonological (e.g. “Does DOG rhyme with LOG?” Y/N)
- Semantic (e.g. “Does FIELD fit in the sentence: ‘The horse lived in a ___.”Y/N)
2) Ps were tested by being unexpectedly confronted with a list of words and asked which ones they had just been shown (they had to recognise target words from a list of old and new, unseen words)
In Craik & Tulving’s (1975) study investigating memory with different levels of processing:
1) Ps studied words and were asked to make 3 judgments:
- Visual processing (e.g. “Is TABLE in upper case?” Y/N)
- Phonological (e.g. “Does DOG rhyme with LOG?” Y/N)
- Semantic (e.g. “Does FIELD fit in the sentence: ‘The horse lived in a ___.”Y/N)
2) Ps were tested by being unexpectedly confronted with a list of words and asked which ones they had just been shown (they had to recall/recognise target words from a list of old and new, unseen words)
Describe the results of the study
Ps performed better (recalled more target words) when they were told to make semantic judgements (greater depth of processing) about a word, relative to phonological and visual judgements
Simply = Deep processing–> better recognition - particularly for “YES” responses
Ps performed better (recalled more target words) when they were told to make semantic judgements (greater depth of processing) about a word, relative to phonological and visual judgements
Simply = Deep processing–> better recognition - particularly for “YES” responses
Why does this occur?
List 3 points
Because Ps spent more time making semantic judgements than visual and phonological judgements
Semantic judgements require a bit more thinking than the other 2 levels of processing
The more time you spend thinking about the target word, the more likely you will remember it
Ps performed better (recalled more target words) when they were told to make semantic judgements (greater depth of processing) about a word, relative to phonological and visual judgements
Simply = Deep processing–> better recognition - particularly for “YES” responses
Why were YES responses better recalled than NO
Because for positive items, the word to be recalled was integrated more closely with the encoding question, particularly in the semantic condition.
If a sentence made sense when linked with the target words, remembering the sentence would help remind you of the target.
Deeper coding is replicated in numerous studies (various encoding tasks)
True or False?
True
Deeper coding affects both _____ and ______
Recognition and Recall
Deeper coding is shown to produce better recall rates in only incidental memory tests
True or False?
False
Deeper coding is shown to produce better recall rates in incidental and not incidental memory tests
What is the difference between recognition and recall?
Recognition = Given a selection, Ps are tested on how many words they recognised from the study phase
Recall = Ps are asked to freely recall as many words as they remember from the study phase
What are the 4 limitations of the Levels of Processing theory?
1) Difficult to define and measure “deeper processing”
2) Difficult to determine processing speed
3) Levels of processing (features) are not processed in a serial order but simultaneously
Simply = Visual, phonological and semantic processing can occur all at once rather than one after the other
4) Deeper is not always more memorable!
E.g. Students might do poorly on retrieving information during exams not because they fail to study but because they focus on the wrong type of knowledge
Define Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)
A proposal claiming that retention is best when the mode of encoding and mode of retrieval are the same
A proposal claiming that retention is best when the mode of encoding and mode of retrieval are the same
This is known as…?
Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)
What is the main principle of Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)?
Memory retrieval is best when the cues available at testing are similar to those available at encoding.
Memory retrieval is best when the cues available at testing are similar to those available at encoding.
This is the main principle of:
a. TAP
b. LoP
a. TAP
Below is an example of a study:
Ps were asked to study pictures of objects (a dog, a house etc.)
Ps were tested with pictures or words
Memory is better if the format is the same at encoding as at testing
What is this an example of?
Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP)
LOP effect can be explained in terms of TAP
How?
Deep encoding is more similar to the way memory is tested
Deep encoding is more similar to the way memory is tested
What does this suggest?
LOP effect can be explained in terms of TAP
Describe Morris, Bransford, and Franks’s (1977) study investigating the effects of TAP on memory
List 3 points
Ps performed incidental learning (they were not told that they would be tested later)
Task:
1) Ps were told to make Phonological or Semantic judgments about words
Semantic e.g. = “Does the word that follows fit the gap in the sentence, ‘The — ran into the lamppost’: car”?
Phonological e.g. = “Does it rhyme with fighter? Writer.”
Memory was test by one of two recognition tests:
2) Test 1 = Ps performed a standard recognition test for the encoded words
In which target words were presented (e.g., car, writer), mixed in with an equal number of non-presented/new words (e.g., fish, lawyer).
3) Test 2 = Ps underwent a rhyming recognition test for the encoded words – e.g., was there a word that rhymed with ”bar”?
Involved presenting a series of words and asking if an item had been presented that rhymed with that word (e.g., bar, lighter).
Ps performed incidental learning (they were not told that they would be tested later)
Task:
1) Ps were told to make Phonological or Semantic judgments about words
Semantic e.g. = “Does the word that follows fit the gap in the sentence, ‘The — ran into the lamppost’: car”?
Phonological e.g. = “Does it rhyme with fighter? Writer.”
Memory was test by one of two recognition tests:
2) Test 1 = Ps performed a standard recognition test for the encoded words
In which target words were presented (e.g., car, writer), mixed in with an equal number of non-presented/new words (e.g., fish, lawyer).
3) Test 2 = Ps underwent a rhyming recognition test for the encoded words – e.g., was there a word that rhymed with ”bar”?
Involved presenting a series of words and asking if an item had been presented that rhymed with that word (e.g., bar, lighter).
Describe the results of Morris, Bransford, and Franks’s (1977) study investigating the effects of TAP on memory
List 2 points
1) Standard recognition test: Same results as LOP theory
Simply = Better memory (higher recollection) for items judged semantically/ with deeper processing
2) Rhyming recognition test: Phonological (shallower processing) led to better performance
Here are the results of Morris, Bransford, and Franks’s (1977) study investigating the effects of TAP on memory
1) Standard recognition test: Same results as LOP theory
Simply = Better memory (higher recollection) for items judged semantically/ with deeper processing
2) Rhyming recognition test: Phonological (shallower processing) led to better performance
What did the study conclude?
Learning more efficient when tested the same way was learned
Why is deeper coding better?
List 2 points
1) Deeper coding involves a richer and more elaborate encoding
2) Items to become more readily retrievable, which in turn leads to better memory
What are the 2 types of rehearsals?
1) Maintenance rehearsal
2) Elaborative rehearsal
Which type of rehearsal enhances delayed long-term learning more?
a. Maintenance rehearsal
b. Elaborative rehearsal
b. Elaborative rehearsal
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Rehearsing items as they are learned
Simply = Involves continuing to process an item at the same level
e.g. the rehearsal of a telephone number by saying it to over and over again to yourself
Maintenance rehearsal enhances delayed long-term learning more than elaborative rehearsal
True or False?
False
Elaborative rehearsal enhances delayed long-term learning more than maintenance rehearsal
Rehearsing items as they are learned
Simply = Involves continuing to process an item at the same level
e.g. the rehearsal of a telephone number by saying it to over and over again to yourself
This is known as…?
Maintenance rehearsal
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Rehearsing whilst linking it to other materials
Simply = Involves linking the material being rehearsed to other knowledge in memory, both within the set of items being learned and beyond
e.g. Reading and rehearsing a theory in a textbook whilst thinking to yourself about whether the theory applies/links to real life examples/real world knowledge
Rehearsing whilst linking it to other materials
Simply = Involves linking the material being rehearsed to other knowledge in memory, both within the set of items being learned and beyond
e.g. Reading and rehearsing a theory in a textbook whilst thinking to yourself about whether the theory applies/links to real life examples/real world knowledge
This is known as…?
Elaborative rehearsal
True or False?
Bower et al. (1969): Recall is better when words are presented in scrambled order than when organised
False
Bower et al. (1969): Recall is better when words are organised than when presented in scrambled order
According to Tulving (1962), memory is benefited by ____ organisation
Subjective organisation
Define subjective organisation
A strategy whereby a learner attempts to organise unstructured material so as to enhance learning
A strategy whereby a learner attempts to organise unstructured material so as to enhance learning
This is known as…?
Subjective organisation
Chunking together separate words for recall, even if those words weren’t encoded together
This is known as…?
Subjective organisation
Items are often chunked together if they are…?
List 3 conditions
1) Linked to a common associate
e.g. SYRINGE, POINT, HAYSTACK, and KNITTING are all linked to NEEDLE
2) Come from the same semantic category (e.g. professions)
3) Form a logical hierarchical structure or matrix
When words are:
1) Linked to a common associate
e.g. SYRINGE, POINT, HAYSTACK, and KNITTING are all linked to NEEDLE
2) Come from the same semantic category (e.g. professions)
3) Form a logical hierarchical structure or matrix
What do we often do?
Chunk the items together (subjective organisation)
Describe Mandler’s (1967) study investigating how organisation affects learning and memory
List 2 points
Task:
1) Ps were presented with a deck of cards with a word on each
2) There were 4 groups:
Group 1 = Learn the words only
Group 2 = Sort the cards by meaning (without knowledge of test)
Group 3 = Sort the cards by meaning (with the knowledge of test)
Group 4 = Arrange the words in columns
In Mandler’s (1967) study investigating how organisation affects learning and memory:
1) Ps were presented with a deck of cards with a word on each
2) There were 4 groups:
Group 1 = Learn the words only
Group 2 = Sort the cards by meaning (without knowledge of test)
Group 3 = Sort the cards by meaning (with the knowledge of test)
Group 4 = Arrange the words in columns
Describe the results (List 2 points)
1) Sorting by meaning with or without the knowledge of the test produced similar recall (higher recall)
2) Worst recall in the fourth group (when Ps were asked to arrange the words in columns)
These were the results of Mandler’s (1967) study investigating how organisation affects learning and memory:
1) Sorting by meaning with or without the knowledge of the test produced similar recall (higher recall)
2) Worst recall in the fourth group (when Ps were asked to arrange the words in columns)
What did the study conclude? (List 2 points)
1) Paying attention to the material and organising them meaningfully is more important
Simply = If you think about its meaning, relate it to what you already know, and consider its wider implications you have a much better chance of learning than if you simply read and note the major points
2) Intention has minimal effect, while level/type of processing matters more
What are 4 factors that aid encoding?
1) Create connections
2) Organisation
3) LOP/TAP
4) Active creation
How do we create connections?
List 2 ways
1) Imagery
2) Meaning
How do we organise items?
List 2 ways
1) Recall by groups
2) Present in an organised way
What are the 2 features of active creation?
1) Generate
2) Test
What are the 2 features of LOP/TAP?
1) Concludes that deeper processing is better
2) Similar encoding-retrieval procedures produce the best recall results
Which is the best definition of episodic memory?
a. A memory of how to perform a certain task
b. A memory of specific events located at a specific point in time
c. A memory consisting of generalised knowledge about the world
d. A memory that cannot be stated quickly
b. A memory of specific events located at a specific point in time
Which of these best defines semantic memory?
a. Memory with a strong recollective component
b. Memory that cannot be stated explicitly
c. Memory consisting of generalised knowledge about the world
d. Memory of specific events located at a specific point in time
c. Memory consisting of generalised knowledge about the world
Palvio explained the fact that imageable words are more memorable by suggesting that having numerous retrieval routes improves the odds of successful recall, an idea called the _______ hypothesis
a. Enhanced cue
b. Visual appearance
c. Retrieval clustering
d. Dual coding
d. Dual coding
Jenkins and Russell (1952) observed that ____ are more likely to be grouped together in a free recall
a. Highly frequent words
b. Semantically related words
c. Rhyming words
d. Abstract words
b. Semantically related words
