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Human Organs and Tissues > Respiratory Tract > Flashcards

Respiratory Tract Flashcards

1
Q

What is internal/cellular respiration?

A

The use of oxygen in the metabolism of organic molecules

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2
Q

What is external respiration?

A

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the external environment

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3
Q

What are 6 general functions of the respiratory system?

A
  1. Provide oxygen
  2. Eliminate CO2
  3. Form speech (phonation)
  4. Defend against microbes (host defense)
  5. Trap and dissolve blood clots arising from the systemic veins
  6. Modulate concentration of biologically active molecules
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4
Q

What is the principle muscle in the resp. system?

A

The diaphragm

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5
Q

What kind of epithelium makes up the respiratory epithelium? What does it rest on?

A

pseudostratified cilliated columnar epithelium resting on a thick basement membrane

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6
Q

What are the most abundant cells in the respiratory epithelium?

A

Cilliated columnar cells

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7
Q

What are most of the cells at the basement membrane making up 30% of the epithelium?

A

stem cells

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8
Q

what 3 other cell types (besides stem and CCC) are present in the resp. epithelium?

A
  1. mucous secreting goblet cells
  2. Intraepithelial lymphocytes
  3. Dendritic cells
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9
Q

What section makes up the upper airways? What is the function?

A

Nose to vocal cords

Humidify and warm inspired air

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10
Q

What happens to air as it passes through the nose? what structures exist in there to increase surface area?

A

Filtration and trapping of large particles

Nasal turbinates are 3 ridge like structures that project into the nasal passages

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11
Q

Where are neural endings associated with smell located in the nose? where do they go?

A

roof of the nose above the superior turbinate carry impulses through the cribriform plate to the
olfactory bulb.

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12
Q

what is the resistance to airflow like in the nose?

A

relatively high

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13
Q

What 3 cell types make up the olfactory epithelium?

A
  1. Basal cells
  2. Supporting cells
  3. Olfactory neurons
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14
Q

What kind of epithelium is olfactory epithelium?

A

pseudostratified

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15
Q

Paranasal sinuses are…?

A

4 air filled spaces surrounding the nasal cavity

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16
Q

What are the 4 paranasal sinuses? where are they?

A
  1. Frontal sinuses - above eyes
  2. Maxillary sinuses - below the eyes
  3. Ethmoidal sinuses - between the eyes
  4. Sphenoidal sinuses - behind the eyes
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17
Q

What are 2 functions of sinuses?

A
  1. lighten the skull

2. provide resonance to the voice

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18
Q

What type of cells line the sinuses?

A

cilliated epithelium

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19
Q

What is sinusitis?

A

Retention of secretions - in the maxillary sinus especially - that results in infection

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20
Q

What are the 3 major structures of the larynx?

A
  1. Epiglottis
  2. Arytenoids
  3. Vocal cords
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21
Q

What are the arytenoids?

A

pair of small 3 sided cartilage structures to which the vocal chords are attached

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22
Q

What do the epiglottis and arytenoids do during swallowing?

A

Cover the vocal chords and prevent the passage of food/drink into the lower resp. tract

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23
Q

the larynx is a short air passage between which two structures of the upper airway?

A

pharynx and the trachea

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24
Q

What makes the walls of the larynx rigid?

A

irregularily shaped cartilages

- hyaline and elastic

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25
Q

What holds the larynx together? what moves it?

A

held together by ligaments and moved by skeletal muscles

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26
Q

What guards the upper opening of the larynx?

A

the epiglottis

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27
Q

What effect do intrinsic vs extrinsic muscles have on the larynx?

A

Extrinsic muscles change larynx position in swallowing

Intrinsic muscles alter relative position (& tension) of vocal cords in production of sound (phonation)

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28
Q

How many lobes does each lung have? what separates them

A

right: 3
- oblique and horizontal fissures
left : 2
- just oblique fissure

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29
Q

Each lobe of the lung is further divided into..

A

segments

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30
Q

What covers both lungs?

A

thin membrane visceral pleura

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31
Q

What is the division of the lower airways starting at the trachea

A
  1. Trachea splits into two mainstem bronchi
  2. Mainstem bronchi divide into lobar bronchi
  3. Lobar bronchi divide into segmental bronchi
  4. Segmental bronchi to bronchioles
  5. Bronchioles terminate in alveoli
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32
Q

What are the 4 functions of the conducting zone airways? how do you differentiate between the conducting and the respiratory zone.

A
  1. pathway for airflow
  2. defend against microbes, toxic chemicals, other foreign materials
    - mucocillary clearance
  3. Warm and moisten air
  4. Phonation

know you have passed between the zones because of the outcroppings of alveoli

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33
Q

the trachea is lined with…

A

typical respiratory epithelium

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34
Q

What lies underneath the respiratory epithelium of the trachea? underneath that?

A

connective tissue of the lamina propria

seromucous glands in the lamina propria and submucosa

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35
Q

What else is found in the submucosa of the trachea besides seromucous glands?

A

hyaline cartilage rings

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36
Q

What do the seromucous glands and goblet cells produce? what does this accomplish?

A

layer of mucous that permits the propulsion of foreign material out of the respiratory system by cilliary movement

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37
Q

Do bronchi have smooth muscle? cartilage ?

A

yes to both

38
Q

What two features are lost as the bronchi transition into bronchioles?

A

loss of supporting cartilage and glands

39
Q

Large bronchioles have what kind of morphology?

A

folded respiratory epithelium, prominent smooth muscle, supported by fibrous connective tissue

40
Q

Smaller bronchioles have what kind of morphology?

A

highly elastic smooth muscle

epithelium is simple columnar but still ciliated

41
Q

What is the morphology of the smallest bronchioles?

A

simple cuboidal cells with cilia make up epithelia

Wall is made up mainly of several layers of smooth muscle

42
Q

What are the terminal bronchioles?

A

the last section of the conducting airway

43
Q

How many layers of smooth muscle does a terminal bronchiole have? what surrounds this? What kind of epithelium do they have?

A

only 1 or 2 layers of SM surrounded by connective tissue

epithelium is ciliated cuboidal cells and non-ciliated columnar

44
Q

What differentiates the respiratory bronchioles and the terminal bronchioles?

A

the presence/absence of alveoli

45
Q

What special cells are found in the terminal bronchioles

A

Clara cells

46
Q

What kind of cells are clara cells?

A

non-ciliated and have bulging domes of apical cytoplasm

47
Q

What are 3 functions of Clara cells?

A
  1. Secrete components of surfactant
  2. Detoxification through P450 system
  3. Produce secretory portion of IgA, lysozyme, cytokines to regulate inflammation
48
Q

What else can be found among clara cells?

A

stem cells that give rise to call the cells within the bronchiolar epithelium

49
Q

What is the result of the huge cross sectional area of the airways past the terminal bronchioles?

A

the flow velocity of air decreases and diffusion takes over as the dominant mechanism of air movement

50
Q

What makes up the largest volume of the lung?

A

the distance between the terminal bronchioles and the alveoli

51
Q

What is the branching order from terminal bronchioles to alveoli ?

A

Terminal bronchioles branch into respiratory bronchioles, which then branch further into alveolar ducts and individual alveoli.

52
Q

units of gas exchange in the resp. system are the…

A

alveoli

53
Q

which law governs gas exchange?

A

Fick’s law

54
Q

What is Fick’s law?

A

VX=ADP/T

VX = volume of gas transferred per unit time;
A = surface area;
D = diffusion coefficient of that gas; 
P = partial pressure difference of the gas; 
T = thickness of the membrane
55
Q

What are 3 important parameters for efficient gas exchange in the lungs?

A
  1. large driving force / partial pressure gradient
  2. Large surface area
  3. Small distance
56
Q

Why is CO2 elimination not affected by diffusion problems?

A

Because Diffusion coefficient, D proportional to Sol/√MW

D for CO2 is approx 20 times higher than for
O2

57
Q

What is different about type II alveolar cells? What % do they make up?

A

only about 3-4%

synthesize and release surfactant

58
Q

What is the role of surfactant? why do we need it?

A

To increase SA and therefore gas exchange, you want to have more, smaller alveoli.

Smaller alveoli have a greater tendency to collapse though

Surfactant lowers the collapsing pressure

59
Q

What law governs the surface tension of alveoli?

A

Law of Laplace: P = 2T/r

P = collapsing pressure on alveolus or pressure required to keep alveolus open (dynes/cm2)
T = surface tension (dynes/cm) 
r = radius of the alveolus (cm)
60
Q

Explain the relationship between pressure to collapse alveolus, surface tension, and radius

A

pressure tending to collapse an alveolus is directly proportional to the surface tension generated by the molecules of liquid lining the alveolus and inversely proportional to the alveolar radius

61
Q

What is respiratory distress syndrome?

A

Newborn Type II alveolar epithelial cells do not mature until week 24 of gestation.
Babies born prematurely Before this do not have sufficient surfactant
to overcome the surface tension forces at alveolar air-liquid interface.

62
Q

What is surfactant made from?

A

mixture of phospholipids and proteins

- including DPPC

63
Q

What does DPPC do in surfactant?

A

DPPC molecules align themselves on alveolar surface, with hydrophobic portions attracted to each other and hydrophilic portions repelled
- Stabilizes alveoli and prevents them collapsing

64
Q

What stimulates secretion of surfactant?

A

deep breathing which stretches the type II cells

65
Q

What are the two distinct blood supplies to the lungs?

A
  1. Pulmonary circulation

2. Bronchial circulation

66
Q

What does pulmonary circulation do?

A

brings deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the alveoli for
gas exchange- CO2 elimination, O2 pick-up.

67
Q

Where does bronchial circulation arise? What does it achieve?

A

arises from aorta and provides nourishment to the lung tissue. Bronchial arteries provide oxygenated, systemic blood to the lungs

68
Q

What are the two pleural membranes? Which one lines which part?

A
  1. Visceral pleural membrane covers the lobes of the lungs

2. Parietal pleural membrane lines the chest wall and mediasternum

69
Q

What do the pleurae secrete?

A

viscous pleural fluid which lubricates them as they rub against each other during breathing

70
Q

What is pressure like in the fluid filled pleural space?

A

slightly less than atmospheric

71
Q

What is the term for inflammation of the pleura? What is the cause often?

A

Pleurisy

- often viral

72
Q

What is pleural effusion?

A

excess of fluid in the pleural cavity

- form of pleurisy

73
Q

What is the difference between transudates and exudates?

A

Transudate: Effusion from the pleural space with little protein

Exudate: contains protein

74
Q

What is the histology of the pleurae like?

A

both consist of simple squamous mesothelium on a thin layer of connective tissue
- rich in collagen and elastin

75
Q

What two muscle groups are involved in normal breathing?

A
  1. External intercostals

2. Diaphragm

76
Q

What 4 groups of muscles are accessory and can be recruited for breathing?

A
  1. Sternocleidomastoid
  2. Scalenus
  3. Internal intercostals
  4. Abdominal muscles
77
Q

The diaphragm divides..

A

the thoracic and abdominal cavities

78
Q

What initiates inspiration? What other muscle movements keep it going?

A
  1. contraction of the diaphragm
    - flattens abd. cavity and moves abdomen outward
  2. Increased vert. dimension of ribcage sets up pressure gradient
  3. External intercostals pull ribcage up and forward.
79
Q

What nerves innervate the diaphagm? The external intercostals?

A

Diaphragm innervated by phrenic nerves.

EI innervated by intercostal nerves

80
Q

What are the most important accessory muscles for forced expiration?

A

abdominal wall muscles and internal intercostals

81
Q

Where along the respiratory tract can you find cilliated cells?

A

From the trachea to the respiratory bronchioles

82
Q

How many cilia approx. does each cell have

A

200

83
Q

What is the arrangement of microtubules in cilia?

A

9 + 2

84
Q

What key role do ciliated cells play?

A

host defense via mucocilary clearance

85
Q

What is the ratio of goblet cells to ciliated cells?

A

1:5

86
Q

When does the # of goblet cells increase? what effect can this have?

A

during disease which can increase the chance of small airways becoming blocked with mucous

87
Q

Where are goblet cells present?

A

wherever there is cartilage

- ie from the trachea to the tertiary bronchi, maybe in the large bronchioles

88
Q

What is the volume of the conducting zone of the airways?

A

150 mL

89
Q

What is the volume of the alveolar range of the airway?

A

2.5-3 L

90
Q

What is the difference in gas movement between the conducting and alveolar regions?

A

bulk flow vs. diffusion

Human Organs and Tissues (16 decks)

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