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Human Organs and Tissues > Integument > Flashcards

Integument Flashcards

1
Q

The skin and derivations/appendages make up the __ and ___ organ in the body

A

largest and heaviest

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2
Q

What % total body weight is the skin?

A

16

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3
Q

What are the 7 main functions of the skin? (dont need to explain)

A
  1. protective
  2. Immunological
  3. Sensory
  4. Exocrine
  5. Endocrine
  6. Homeostasis
  7. Communication
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4
Q

How is the skin protective?

A

water resistant barrier that protects against dehydration, abrasions, UV light, and toxins

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5
Q

How is the skin immunological?

A

acts as a passive barrier to pathogens but also contains APCs

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6
Q

What kind of exocrine activity does the skin have? (4 kinds)

A

Eccrine sweat glands for excretion and cooling

Apocrine sweat glands for signalling

Sebaceous glands for lubrication

Mammary glands for nutrition

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7
Q

What is an endocrine function of the skin?

A

part of the vitamin D synthesis pathway occurs here

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8
Q

What are some homeostatic functions of the skin?

A

Thermoregulation, water conservation, gas exchange, and excretion

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9
Q

What are some “communication” roles of the skin?

A

Non-verbal signals like changes in coloration and goosebumps

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10
Q

The most superficial later of the skin is the…?

A

epidermis

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11
Q

What is the predominant cells type of the epidermis?

A

Keratinocytes (90%)

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12
Q

Besides keratinocytes, what 3 other cell types make up the epidermis?

A
  1. Melanocytes
  2. Langerhans cells
  3. Merkel cells
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13
Q

regeneration of the epidermis occurs approximately every…

A

30 days

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14
Q

The epidermis is avascular, how then is it nourished?

A

Receives nourishment from vessels in the underlying dermis

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15
Q

What is the only kind of innervation that the epidermis receives?

A

Unencapsulated (free) nerve endings

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16
Q

the epidermal layer is further subdivided into how many strata?

A

5

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17
Q

What is the order of the epidermal strata from outer to inner?

A
  1. Stratum corneum
  2. Stratum lucidum
  3. Stratum granulosum
  4. Stratum spinosum
  5. Stratum basale
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18
Q

Which strata isn’t always present in the epidermis?

A

the stratum lucidum

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19
Q

Where does the division of the keratinocytes occur?

A

in the stratum basale

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20
Q

what are two main divisions of types of skin? where is each found

A

thick and thin

  • depends on location
  • thick is only on the palms of hands and the soles of feet
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21
Q

What is the difference between thick and thin skin in terms of layers? in terms of functions?

A

the thick skin has all 5

  • has abundant sweat glands
  • more squamous stratum spinosum cells

thin skin has 4 layers

  • stratum lucidum not always detectable
  • has hairs
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22
Q

The turnover of the skin surface is made up of 4 overlapping processes: what are they?

A
  1. Cell renewal (mitosis)
  2. Differentiation (keratinization)
  3. Cell death
  4. Exfoliation
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23
Q

How long does the keratinization process take? is it totally synchronized?

A

takes about 15-30 days and occurs in waves

cell layer produced by a mitotic wave in the basal layer undergoes keratinization in synchrony

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24
Q

What is the stratum basale comprised of and what does it rest on?

A

Single later of columnar cells that sit on the basal lamina

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25
Q

What 3 cell types are in the stratum basale?

A
  1. mitotically active keratinocytes
  2. Melanocytes
  3. Merkel cells
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26
Q

How are kertinocytes linked together and to the basal lamina?

A

Linked together by desmosomes and to the basal lamina by hemidesmosomes

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27
Q

What 4 parts make up the structure of the desmosome? what do they do?

A
  1. Adaptor proteins that attach keratin filaments to the cytoplasmic plaque
  2. Transmembrane linkers that connect adjacent cells
  3. Cytoplasmic domain which binds the adaptor
  4. Extracellular domain which associates with linkers on the opposing cell
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28
Q

Keratin filaments are also called two other things..?

A

Tonofilaments and intermediate filaments

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29
Q

Hemidesmosomes are only found in the ___ and the intercellular proteins are ___ as opposed to ___

A

only found in the stratum basale

intercellular proteins are integrins instead of cadherins

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30
Q

What is the morphology of the cells in the stratum spinosum layer? What do they have?

A

Cuboidal to squamous cells with central nuclei

Have aggregates of keratin called tonofilaments

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31
Q

What are the cells in the stratum spinosum responsible for?

A

responsible for the mechanical strength of the epidermis

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32
Q

What are the layers of cells like in the stratum spinosum? single or multiple?

A

variable number depending on location

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33
Q

What is the Malpighian layer?

A

layer including the stratum basale and the stratum spinosum

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34
Q

Nearly all of what occurs in the Malpighian layer and when?

A

mitotic activity and at night

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35
Q

What gives the stratum spinosum the “spikey” appearance?

A

the tonofilaments that are linked cell to cell by desmosomes

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36
Q

the intercellular bridges of the keratinocytes (prickle cells) bind the cells of this layer together strongly and resist..

A

abrasion

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37
Q

In the stratum granulosum, the keratinocytes are mainly…

A

squamous

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38
Q

What do the keratinocytes in the stratum granulosum layer contain (2 things)

A
  1. membraneless keratohyalin granules

2. Membraned lamellar granules

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39
Q

Is there divisional capacity in the stratum granulosum?

A

Nope but the cells are still alive and making lots of keratin

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40
Q

What do lamellar granules do? What does this accomplish

A

Fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents into the intercellular spaces

these glycosaminoglycans and phospholipids may be important in sealing the deeper layers of the skin from the external environment/protect from dehydration

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41
Q

What layer sits on top of the stratum granulosum?

A

the stratum lucidum but only in thick skin

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42
Q

What is the morphology of the stratum lucidum?

A

a narrow, acidophilic, translucent band of flattened keratinocytes

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43
Q

What are not visible in the keratinocytes of the stratum lucidum?

A

Nuclei, organelles, and intercellular borders

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44
Q

What is found in the cytoplasm of the keratonocytes of the stratum lucidum?

A

dense cytokeratin aggregates embedded in an amorphous, electron dense matrix derived from keratohyalin granules

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45
Q

What makes up the stratum corneum?

A

many layers of dead, plate like keratinocytes

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46
Q

What are the keratonocytes of the stratum corneum like (mophologically)

A

have thickened plasma membranes and lack nuclei

Filled with almost pure keratin

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47
Q

What is the function of the stratum corneum?

A

acts as the permeability barrier of the skin

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48
Q

What acts as a sealant between the cells of the stratum corneum?

A

epidermal lipids

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49
Q

What does differentiation of a Keratinocyte entail?

A
  1. accumulation of keratin filaments
  2. aggregation of filaments into tonofibrils
  3. synthesis of lamellar granules
  4. Release of lamellar granules at cell surface
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50
Q

In what layer do the nuclei of the keratinocytes begin to degenerate?

A

In the outer layer of the stratum granulosum

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51
Q

What else degrades in the stratum granulosum? Why?

A

Intracellular organelles do as a result of release of lysosomal enzymes

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52
Q

Melanocytes make up what % of cells in the epidermis?

A

about 5

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53
Q

Where are melanocytes found?

A

in the stratum basale

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54
Q

How are melanocytes attached and to which cells?

A

Attached to the basal lamina via hemidesmosomes

Not attached to neighboring keratinocytes

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55
Q

Where is skin pigment made?

A

In melanosomes

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56
Q

How is skin pigment dispersed?

A

Melanosomes aggregate as granules and are delivered in small packaged to each basal cell by dendrites to other keratinocytes

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57
Q

What does the pigment do /where does it go in each cell?

A

Sit over the nucleus of each cell

protects against UV damage

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58
Q

What is required to make melanin?

A

Tyrosinase is required for melanocytes to produce melanin from the amino acid tyrosine

this enzyme is lacking in people who are albino

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59
Q

Where is the highest concentration of melanin?

A

In the cells that are most deeply localized and actively dividing

  • the DNA is therefore more sensitive to damage
  • other layers don’t have proliferative cells so it doesn’t matter is the DNA is damaged
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60
Q

Skin colour is conferred by which two pigments?

A

melanin and carotene

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61
Q

What other factors besides pigment affect skin coloration?

A
  1. Thickness of epidermis
  2. Number of dermal blood vessels
  3. Colour of the blood (hemoglobin) in the vessels
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62
Q

the amount of melanin you produce is …

A

hereditarily conferred

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63
Q

What is carotene?

A

yellowish pigment found in corneum and dermis. It is a plant pigment that enters the body via food and helps yield the yellow and red skin colours

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64
Q

Which pigment is responsible for darker or lighter skin colourations?

A

More melanin leads to dark-skin colouration

Caucasians have more carotene than melanin

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65
Q

Does the number of melanocytes differ between people of different skin colours?

A

No, the keratinocyte processing of melanosomes differs OR the activity of the melanocytes

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66
Q

What are the two steps in skin darkening following exposure to UV radiation ?

A
  1. Physiochemical reaction darkens pre-existing melanin and releases it rapidly into the keratinocytes
    - this happens immediately
  2. Increased rate of melanin synthesis by melanocytes
    - occurs after a couple days
67
Q

What does Melanin absorb to protect DNA?

A

some rays directly and some free radicals produced

68
Q

What does melanin not protect against?

A

the deeper penetrating UVA rays

- these get into the dermis

69
Q

The youthfulness of skin is attributed to which layer?

A

the dermis

70
Q

What 3 things happen as skin ages?

A
  1. Thinning of the epidermis and dermis
  2. Disorganization and loss of collagen
  3. Reduced vascularization
71
Q

What is UVB required for?

A

synthesis of previtamin D from 7-dehydrocolesterol

72
Q

What are langerhans cells? where are they located?

A

Star shaped APCs located int the stratum spinosum

73
Q

What do the langerhans cells do?

A

present any antigenic material that penetrates the skin to the lymphocytes

74
Q

where do Langerhans cells present antigenic material to lymphocytes?

A

local lymph nodes

- so they need to migrate out of the epidermis and into the lymphatic vessels

75
Q

Langerhans cells are important in which kind of response?

A

contact allergic responses by recruiting and stimulating other myeloid cells

76
Q

Merkel cells make up what % of epidermal cells?

A

<1%

77
Q

Where are Merkel cells found?

A

in the basal layer of the epidermis

78
Q

How are Merkel cells attached to keratinocytes?

A

via macula adherens junctions

79
Q

Where are Merkel cells most commonly found throughout the body?

A

most on the palms of hands and soles of feet

80
Q

What is thought to be the function of merkel cells?

A

sensory or neuroendocrine

81
Q

What is the purpose of the ridges of the dermal-epidermal junction?

A

ridges formed that promote the strength of the skin AND allow for nutrients to get into the epidermis more readily

82
Q

What is each dermal ridge further subdivided into?

A

Two secondary dermal ridges

83
Q

What separates the two secondary dermal ridges?

A

a downgrowth of the epidermis called an interpapillary peg

84
Q

the dermis is a layer of variable thickness ___ tissue?

A

Vascular connective tissue

85
Q

What are 4 typical cells found within the dermis?

A

Fibroblasts, lymphocytes, macrophages, and mast cells

86
Q

What are some typical skin structures that arise in the dermis?

A

Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles

87
Q

What kind of cell is NOT found in the dermis

A

epithelial cells lol

88
Q

What are two layers of the dermis?

A
  1. Papillary layer

2. Reticular layer

89
Q

What is the morphology of the dermal papillary layer like? What is it composed of?

A

Uneven and forms dermal papillae which increase contact area with epidermis

Composed of loose connective tissue

90
Q

What touch receptors are found in the dermal papillary layer? What kind of receptors are they?

A

Meissner corpuscles which are fine touch receptors

91
Q

What kind of tissue makes up the reticular layer of the dermis?

A

Dense irregular connective tissue

92
Q

What kind of property does the reticular layer confer to the skin?

A

overall strength and elasticity

93
Q

What two things are housed in the reticular layer of the dermis?

A

glands and hair follicles

94
Q

What two kinds of nerves supply the reticualr layer of the dermis

A

both free and encapsulated ends

95
Q

What features control the amount of blood reaching the papillary capillaries? what else does this accomplish?

A

Arteriovenous anastomoses/shunts

also aid in the regulation of heat loss and blood pressure

96
Q

What is not actually a true layer of skin but is attached to it?

A

Hypodermis - subcutaneous layer of fascia

97
Q

What is the function of the hypodermis?

A

allows for movement of skin over the body proper

98
Q

What is the hypodermis composed of?

A

fat cells, fibroblasts, lymphocytes, macrophages, and mast cells

99
Q

glands, hair, and nails arise from…

A

epidermal downgrowths into the dermis during embryonic development

100
Q

what are the parts of the hair shaft?

A

Inner medulla, cortex, outer cuticle of the hair

101
Q

The hair bulb is…

A

the terminal expanded region of the hair follicle in which the hair is rooted

102
Q

Where is the internal root sheath located?

A

lies deep to the entrance of the sebacous gland

103
Q

What is the external root sheath a direct continuation of?

A

the surrounding malpighian layer of the epidermis

104
Q

What is the glassy membrane of the hair?

A

Non cellular layer which is a thickening of the basement membrane separating the hair follicle from the surrounding dermal sheath

105
Q

the contraction of which muscle is responsible for the formation of goose bumps?

A

the arrector pili muscle

106
Q

Where does the arrector pili muscle attach?

A

to the dermal sheath surrounding the hair follicle

107
Q

Contraction of the arrector pili muscle also results in…

A

compression of sebaceous glands and the pushing out of their contents to the surface of the skin

108
Q

Hair only occurs in which type of skin?

A

thin skin

109
Q

What are the 4 types of hair?

A
  1. Lanugo
  2. Vellus
  3. Intermediate
  4. Terminal
110
Q

What is lanugo?

A

Neonatal hair present from month 7 to 8 in utero

- soft, fine, without a medulla

111
Q

What is vellus hair?

A

short, fine shafted hair present post natally

112
Q

What is intermediate hair and when is it present?

A

post natal to 2 years of age

intermediate between vellus and terminal hair

113
Q

What is terminal hair like?

A

long, course, medullated and most common visible hair

114
Q

What makes up the nail root? what do these make?

A

the stratum basale and the spinosum of the epidermis

synthesize the nail plate/body

115
Q

What is the nail bed made from? Does this contribute to nail synthesis?

A

Stratum basale and stratum spinosum of nail and doesn’t contribute to nail synthesis

116
Q

What is the nail plate? what layer of the nail is this

A

a closely compacted keratin structure enriched with hard interfibrillar material

stratum corneum of the nail

117
Q

What is the eponychium ?

A

aka the cuticle

junction between the skin stratum corneum and the base of the nail plate

118
Q

What causes nail growth?

A

keratinocytes in the nail (matrix cells) proliferate, grow, synthesize hard keratin and die to form the plate of the nail

119
Q

What are the 3 epidermal derived glands in the skin?

A
  1. Eccrine
  2. Apocrine
  3. Sebaceous
120
Q

Where are Apocrine sweat glands located?

A

in the axilla and groin only

121
Q

When do apocrine glands become active? What do they secrete?

A

become active at puberty and secrete glycoproteins

122
Q

Where are eccrine glands found?

A

these are basic sweat glands found all over the body

123
Q

What do eccrine sweat glands secrete?

A

Water, ions, urea

124
Q

Sebaceous glands are essentially part of what other structure?

A

hair follicles

125
Q

What secretory product do sebacous glands secrete onto the hair follicle?

A

sebum

126
Q

What is sebum composed of?

A

lipids, triglycerides, waxes, squalene, cholesterol and cell remnants

127
Q

What controls secretions from sebaceous glands?

A

Testosterone in men and androgens in women

128
Q

What is the function of secretions from the sebaceous glands?

A

antibacterial or antifungal effects

129
Q

Mammary glands are modifications of what type of glands? What are they?

A

Apocrine sweat glands

Milk producing glands that develop during pregnancy and lactation

130
Q

Free nerve endings sense..

A

pain and temperature

131
Q

Hair follicle receptors sense?

A

hair motion and its directions

132
Q

Merkel cell endings sense?

A

edges, corners, and curvatures

- pins and needles

133
Q

What sensory structures sense slipping of surface over skin?

A

Meissner’s corpuscles

134
Q

What are Krauses end bulb ? what do they sense?

A

Golgi tendon organ

senses tension/force

135
Q

What do pacinian corpuscles sense?

A

are mechanoreceptors

sense any kind of mechanical stimulus or pressure

136
Q

What do ruffini endings sense?

A

Displacement/tension in collagen fibres in the dermis

pressure

137
Q

Meissner’s corpuscles are… what kind of response do they have?

A

encapsulated unmyelinated nerve ending in the dermal papilla of skin, sense dynamic deformation of skin with high sensitivity but poor special resolution

138
Q

What is the distribution of meissner’s corpuscles like throughout the skin?

A

distributed throughout the skin but concentrated in areas sensitive to light touch

139
Q

Pacinian corpuscles are located in which layers of the skin?

A

deep in the dermis and hypodermis

in some mucous membranes and joints

140
Q

What is dermatitis

A

any inflammation of the skin

usually used to refer to eczema

141
Q

What is contact hypersensitivity? what happens?

A

Allergic reaction where haptens are absorbed through the skin and bind langerhans cells which then migrate to draining lymph nodes

142
Q

What is psoriasis?

A

Chronic reoccuring skin disease that produces red, scaly, and well defined patches of skin on the body

143
Q

What produces the scaly lesions in psoriasis?

A

Very quick regeneration of epidermal skin cells which results in poorly formed skin cells that tend to pile up on the skin and produce the scale

144
Q

What is hyperkeratosis?

A

thickening of the stratum corneum

145
Q

What is parakeratosis?

A

retention of nuclei in the stratum corneum

146
Q

What is Ehlers-Danlos syndrome?

A

rare genetic disorder caused by defective collagen synthesis

147
Q

What are some of the effects of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome?

A

Fragile ski

Hyperentensible joints

148
Q

What is bullous pemphigoid?

A

chronic blistering of the skin

149
Q

What kind of disease is bullous pemphigoid?

A

Autoimmune disorder prevalent in the elderly

150
Q

What causes bullous pemphigoid?

A

loss of attachment of basal keratinocytes to the underlying basement membrane

Deposition of immunoreactants at the dermal-epidermal junction

151
Q

What is vitiligo?

A

loss of skin colour

152
Q

What causes vitiligo?

A

loss or malfunction of melanocytes

153
Q

What are the ABCDEs of skin cancer?

A 
A= asymmetry
B = border, rough or not
C = colour, continuous or not?  
D = diameter ? Bigger than the eraser head of a pencil should be check out 
E = evolving. Is it changing over time?
154
Q

skin cancer is a malignant growth of skin developing in the…

A

epidermis

155
Q

what are three predisposing factors to developing skin cancer?

A
  1. Sunburn or excessive sun damage
  2. Chronic non healing wounds
  3. Genetic predisposition
    - “Congenital Melanocytic Nevi Syndrome”
156
Q

What are the 3 most common types of skin cancer?

A
  1. Basal cell carcinoma
  2. Squamous cell carcinoma
  3. Melanoma
157
Q

Which one of the 3 common skin cancer types tends to metastasize?

A

melanoma

158
Q

Where does basal cell carcinoma originate?

A

In the stratum basale

159
Q

Where does squamous cell carcinoma originate?

A

in the stratum spinosum

160
Q

What is different about melanoma that allows it to metastasize?

A

develops in melanocytes that have dendrites

161
Q

Where do most breast cancers start?

A

in the ducts

162
Q

Ductal carcinoma in situ means that the breast cancer lesion is..

A

non invasive/non metastatic

163
Q

What does it mean if you have an invasive ductal carcinoma?

A

breast cancer cells have spread beyond the basement membrane of the ductal walls

Human Organs and Tissues (16 decks)

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