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HSC1007 A&P - E > Respiratory Physiology > Flashcards

Respiratory Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is cellular respiration

A

intercellular metabolic reactions that use o2 and produce co2 during ATP production

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2
Q

what is extracellular respiration

A

transfer of o2 and co2 between external environment and tissue cells

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3
Q

what is the main function of the respiratory system

A

provides o2 for tissues to metabolise

remove co2 and regulates pH (co2 is a byproduct of metabolism)

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4
Q

what are some accessory functions that the respiratory system does

A

endocrine functions - activates angiotensin II to
- increase fluid intake
- increase BP and plasma volume

immunological functions
- clearance of irritants/particles and potential pathogens

voice production
- via the larynx
- route for water loss
- route for heat elimination (hot breath)

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5
Q

components part of the upper and lower respiratory system

A

upper
- nasal passages
- pharynx
- larynx

lower
- trachea
- bronchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli

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6
Q

function of the respiratory airways

A

ventilation
gaseous exchange
protective mechanisms

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7
Q

structure of the lungs that allow perfusion

A

blood vessels and alveoli are always in close proximity, allowing perfusion with the blood and alveoli for gaseous exchange

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8
Q

list out step by step, as to how the respiratory and circulatory system helps takes deoxygenated blood from tissue, all the way till oxygenated blood being distributed

A
  1. deoxygenated blood travels via systemic circulation and into the heart
  2. heart pumps deoxygenated blood into lungs via pulmonary arteries
  3. oxygenation of blood and release of co2 in lungs
  4. blood re-enter heart from lung via pulmonary veins
  5. distributed to the rest of the body via aorta and branches
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9
Q

3 features of the pleura

A

visceral pleura (inner layer)
parietal pleura (outer layer)
pleura cavity (space inbetween both layers)

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10
Q

what is found within the pleural cavity, and what is the volume and purpose

A

intrapleural fluid, 5-15ml, lubricates pleural surfaces

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11
Q

3 important pressures in regards to the respiratory system to help with inspiration and expiration of air

A

atmospheric pressure
intra-alveolar pressure
intrapleural pressure

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12
Q

how do you determine the flow of air from atmosphere to lungs, or vice versa

A

air is always moving from a place of higher pressure, to lower pressure

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13
Q

how do you change your intra-alveolar pressure to create a pressure gradient to allow inspiration of air?

A

thorax and intercostal muscles help expand the chest cavity, intra-alveolar and intra-pleural pressure drops as the lungs are streched, resulting in a pressure gradient, allowing air to flow in

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14
Q

what is the transmural pressure gradient

A

different in intra-alveolar pressure and intra-pleural pressure

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15
Q

two conditions that may affect the pleural space, and what is the effect on respiration efficiency

A

pneumothorax - excess air within the pleural cavity
pleural effusion - excess fluids within the pleural cavity

both causes increased pressure within the pleural cavity, resulting in less efficiency in respiratory cycle

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16
Q

breaking airway generation into 23 division, where is the conducting zone and respiratory zone as well as what organs are within each zone

A

conducting zone 1-16 division
0 - trachea
2/3 - bronchi
4 - bronchioles
7/8 - terminal bronchioles

respiratory zone 17-23
18 - respiratory bronchioles
21 - alveolar duct
23 - alveolar sac

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17
Q

what are the two types of alveolar cells and there corresponding %

A

type I alveolar cells (90%) (respiratory epithelium)
type II alveolar cells (10%) (surfactant) (reduces surface tension, allowing for alveolar expansion)

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18
Q

how thick is the wall of the alveoli, and why so

A

0.5μm, thin barrier allows for instant gaseous exchange with blood vessels via diffusion

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19
Q

how does O2 and CO2 diffuse across the thin barrier

A

diffusion from high to lower concentration
CO2 rich blood > alveoli
O2 rich alveoli > blood vessels

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20
Q

what is the time taken for blood in capillaries and alveoli to diffuse

A

0.75 total, 0.25 for oxygenation and 0.5 for safety margin, in case there is a need for increase cardiac output/additional gaseous exchange

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21
Q

musculature of trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

A

trachea - mainly cartilage, little smooth muscles
bronchi - mainly cartilage, little smooth muscles
bronchioles - mainly smooth muscles

for trachea and bronchi, cartilaginous rings to help reinforce during pressure changes during respiration

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22
Q

protective mechanisms of airway

A

protection of respiratory epithelium (mucosa)
- humidifying air in upper passages for easy diffusion
- mucous secretion (prevent dust invasion)

protection of lungs
- mucocilliary trapping foreign matter
- ciliary escalator (flap foreign particles upwards)
- alveolar macrophages for particles
- airway reflexes such as coughing and sneezing

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23
Q

which part of the respiratory tract has cilia

A

epithelium to trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

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24
Q

what part of the body helps with inspiration and expiration of air

A

movement of chest wall and lungs

chest - skeleton and muscles

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25
Q

which set of intercostal muscles are responsible for inspiration of air, and how does it help

what about other muscles

A

external intercostal muscles help elevate the ribs, causing sternum to move up and out, increasing thoracic capacity

diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards to allow space for the thoracic cavity to expand

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26
Q

what changes to the air drawn/expelled happen during ventilation stimulation such as exercise

A

inspiration
- increase amount of air being draw into lungs per unit time

expiration
- increase amount of air being expelled from lungs per unit time

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27
Q

define anatomical dead space

A

space up to the respiratory bronchioles that do not have alveoli for gaseous exchange

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28
Q

what is alveolar ventilation and how do you calculate it

A

alveolar ventilation - amount of air that reach the alveolar per minute

AV = (TV - ADS) x breaths/min

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29
Q

what does effective oxygenation and co2 removal in lungs depend on

A

ventilation and gas exchange via diffusion
- enough fresh air per cycle?
- does the fresh air reach the alveoli?
- can the air diffuse effectively across to the capillaries?
- can co2 abundant air leave the lungs effectively?

perfusion of lungs
- does blood coming from heart reach alveoli?
- are all alveoli perfusing with blood
- is there sufficient time based on blood flow rate for proper perfusion

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30
Q

factors affecting gaseous exchange with alveoli

A

diffusion across alveolar-capillary barrier
- thickness of barrier
- partial pressure difference
- surface area

blood flow
- rate of blood flow through alveoli
- perfusion rate of alveoli

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31
Q

how do you calculate partial pressure of a specific gas? (example O2)

A

21% of atmospheric air is O2

21% x atmospheric air pressure to get = PO2 in air

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32
Q

what direction does gas exchange go to and fro? (pressure example)

A

high pressure > low pressure

equal pressure = no diffusion

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33
Q

is o2 soluble or insoluble? where does the insoluble o2 go to

A

relatively insoluble, approximately 98% will bind to hemoglobin

34
Q

how does the surface area of alveoli affect gaseous exchange

A

large surface area promotes diffusion, if there is a reduction in surface area = no efficient gas exchange = lack of o2 to tissues, lack of co2 removal

35
Q

how does rate of blood flow affect gaseous exchange

A

blood flow allows perfusion between alveoli and blood

blood flow slow down = slower rate of exchange
blood flow speed up = faster rate of exchange

gas exchange takes only 0.25 seconds (if u remember) so even if the blood flow’s fast, it’ll still diffuse properly

36
Q

route for pulmonary circulation (from deoxygenated blood entering the right atrium)

A

right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary artery to lungs > branches into multiple pulmonary arterioles > capillary bed around alveoli > small pulmonary veins > large pulmonary veins > left atrium

37
Q

pulmonary artery pressure generated via the right ventricle is low/high? why so?

A

low pressure
- right ventricle relatively thin
- slow down blood flow to allow blood to go around each alveoli for gas exchange

38
Q

compare the systemic and pulmonary circulation

A

pulmonary - low resistance low pressure, normally dilated

systemic - high pressure, normally constricted

39
Q

how is blood flow within the lungs distributed

A

not uniform

40
Q

what are some factors affecting the distribution of blood within the lungs

A

gravity
- upright position, more blood flow at the bottom

muscular tone of arterioles
- pulmonary arterioles can distend better than systemic arterioles
- vasoconstriction resulting in less blood flow to constricted location (etc the bottom, forcing blood upwards)

41
Q

apex vs base of lungs

explain with levels of PO2 and PCO2, air and blood volume

why are the volumes as such

A

Apex
- more PO2, less PCO2
- more air, less blood

Base
- more PCO2, less PO2
- more blood, less air

base is closer to heart, thus blood reaches it more easily.
apex is further from heart, so less blood but more air

air carries O2, blood carries CO2

42
Q

how does the body help balance blood and airflow balance in the apex of the lungs

A

low co2
- contraction of local airway smooth muscles (force air to go elsewhere)
- constriction of local airways
- increased airway resistance
- reduction in airflow

high o2
- relaxation of pulmonary arteriolar smooth muscles
- dilation of local blood vessels (more blood from base to apex)
- reduce in vascular resistance
- increase blood flow

43
Q

how does the body help balance blood and airflow balance in the base of the lungs

A

high co2
- relaxation of local airway smooth muscles
- dilation of local airways
- reduced airway resistance
- increase airflow

low o2
- constriction of local pulmonary arteriolar smooth muscles
- constriction of local blood vessels
- increase vascular resistance
- reduce blood flow

44
Q

what is tidal volume

A

total amount of air entering and leaving lungs while on rest

45
Q

what is inspiratory reserve volume

A

extra air entering lungs during maximal inspiration (ontop of TV)

46
Q

what is expiratory reserve volume

A

extra air leaving the lungs during maximum expiration (ontop of passive expiration)

47
Q

what is residual volume

A

volume of air left in lungs after maximum expiration

48
Q

what is vital capacity

A

amount of air that can mobilize in and out of the lungs (total lung capacity - residual volume)

49
Q

what is functional residual capacity

A

air that maintains in the lungs after quiet expiration

50
Q

formula for minute ventilation

A

Tidal volume x Respiratory rate (breaths per minute)

51
Q

two type of chemoreceptors that help control respiration

A

medullary chemoreceptor (central) and carotid/aortic body chemoreceptors (peripheral)

52
Q

what does the medullary chemoreceptors sense

A

drop in pH and increase in CO2 levels

53
Q

what does the aortic/carotid body chemoreceptors sense

A

decrease in O2 levels

54
Q

three ways the co2 is broken down to be transported in blood

A
  1. dissolved directly into plasma
  2. bind to hemoglobin
  3. turned into bicarbonate
55
Q

how does co2 turn into bicarbonate to be excreted by the erythrocyte? (mention the entire chemical equation as well as what comes in after bicarbonate goes out)

A

CO2 + H2O + enzyme carbonic anhydrase = H2CO3 = break down further into H+ and HCO3-

HCO3- leaves the erythrocyte and takes in a Cl- ion to balance. (Chlorine shift to maintain electrical neutrality)

56
Q

What stimulates the medullary chemoreceptor

A

the H+ ion that was broken down from carbonic acid (H2CO3) within the cerebral spinal fluid binds to the chemoreceptor to increase respiratory rate

Note
- Normal H+ ions cannot stimulate the central chemoreceptor because its not very soluble!!! only the H+ from the H2CO3 that’s already WITHIN the cerebral spinal fluid can

57
Q

what stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors

A

O2 and H+ ions

58
Q

where are the carotid and aortic bodies found

A

carotid artery’s bifurcation, near to the carotid sinus and aorta

59
Q

local control mechanism to match ventilation and perfusion (two alveoli, one cmi)

A

blood flow to the malfunctioning alveoli will have its arteriole constricted to allow blood to flow to more well-oxygenated alveoli for diffusion

60
Q

what are some local factors affecting gas exchange at alveoli

A
  1. surface area of alveoli
  2. thickening of alveoli membrane
  3. increase diffusion distance due to excess fluid
  4. increase airway resistance to the alveoli
61
Q

what are some factors affecting the efficiency of diffusion of gases

A
  1. partial pressure of gas between alveoli and blood
  2. diffusion barrier thickness
  3. diffusion property of gas
  4. area for diffusion
62
Q

what is compliance of the chest wall and lungs

A

how readily they are stretched/inflated

63
Q

what is the formula for compliance

A

Change in lung volume/change in pleural pressure

64
Q

what can cause a lack of compliance

A
  1. scarring of the lung tissues
  2. lack of surfactant
  3. edema of alveolar wall
65
Q

how does surface tension of alveoli influence the lungs’ compliance

A

surface tension causes alveoli to contract, by pulling each other together, resulting in increase pressure within alveoli (smaller = more pressure, higher tendency to collapse)

as a result, the smaller alveoli will empty into the bigger alveoli

66
Q

relationship between pressure and radius

A

pressure and radius are inversely proportional

pressure and surface tension are proportional

67
Q

what is something that can help prevent collapsing of the alveoli

A

presence of surfactant, reduces alveolar surface tension = lower tendency to collapse

68
Q

what is the surfactant made up of, and where does it recide

A

mixture of phospholipids, lipids, and proteins

it lines the inner surface of alveolar epithelium

69
Q

some situations where there will be an increase in resistance to the flow of air

A
  1. bronchoconstriction
  2. reduced lung volume
  3. mucus accumulation

all results in increase work of breathing

70
Q

FEV1 and FVC

A

forced expiratory volume exhaled in 1 second after full inspiration

forced vital capacity - total volume expired forcefully after full inspiration

71
Q

why measure FEV1 and FVC for spirometry

A

picks up changes in
- resistance to airflow
- elasticity of lungs

72
Q

what two systems (and one other thing) is utilised to transport o2 to tissue

A

respiratory system
- perfusion, diffusion, ventilation

cardiovascular system
- vascular constriction, cardiac output

blood

73
Q

factors affecting amount of o2 carried by HB

A
  • partial pressure of O2 in blood (higher PO2, more O2 binding)
  • concentration of HB in blood (more HB, more O2 can bind)
  • Affinity of HB for O2
74
Q

factors affecting affinity of HB for O2

A
  • temperature
  • pH level
  • 2,3 disphosphoglycerate (DPG)
75
Q

pH influence on HB saturation curve

A

higher pH = acidic = high CO2 content = oxygen more readily released = curve moves to the right

lower pH = alkaline = high O2 content = oxygen not needed in excess = curve move to the left

76
Q

temperature influence on HB saturation curve

A

low temperature = colder = less energy used = no need excess O2 = hold onto O2 = graph moves left

high temperature = hot = more energy used/needed = O2 more readily let go = graph moves right

77
Q

what is 2,3 DPG?

A

2,3 diphosphogylcerate is a by-product of RBC glycolysis

78
Q

how does 2,3 DPG influence the HB saturation graph

A

no 2,3 DPG = not working/not working hard = no excess O2 needed = graph moves left

79
Q
A
80
Q
A

HSC1007 A&P - E (5 decks)

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