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human physiology > respiratory > Flashcards

respiratory Flashcards

1
Q

catabolism of glucose

A

co2, water, energy(ATP) in the presence of oxygen

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2
Q

what is breathing

A

the process of exchanging o2 from the atmosphere with co2 from the body

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3
Q

two main features that differentiate organisms respiratory systems

A

habitat

level of organisation

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4
Q

respiration in coelenterates,sponges,flatworms

A

cell surface, gaseous exchange with gases dissolving in water passing through cells as they do not have blood vessels to transport gases.

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5
Q

respiration in earthworms

A

moist cuticle. the cuticle is the outermost covering and used for the diffusion of gases. it is thin moist and vascular

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6
Q

respiration in insects like cockroach

A

network of tubes- the tracheal system to transport atmospheric air within the body. they have small openings called spiracles through which air enters and leaves the body.

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7
Q

respiration in lower aquatic arthropods

A

eg: cray fish,prawn ,molluscs like unio
they have special vascular structures like gills(plate like filamentous and highly vascular) which are bathed with water for exchange of gases

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8
Q

respiration in vertebrate fishes

A

gills

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9
Q

respiration in amphibians

A

gills(tadpole )

moist skin,lungs,buccal cavity(frogs and toads)

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10
Q

respiration in birds mammals and reptiles

A

lungs

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11
Q

why do aquatic animals have a faster rate of breathing than terrestrial animals

A

because the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly lower in water than air and also that aquatic organisms like the fishes obtain oxygen from water present in the dissolved state.

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12
Q

turtles breathe air from

A

cloaca

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13
Q

what is fermentation

A

it is also called anaerobic respiration
eg:in yeast, glucose forms ethyl alcohol and co2. in bacteria,endoparasites, mature RBC and muscles, glucose is converted to lactic acid.

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14
Q

whats the respiratory passage

A

the flow of air from the outside to the internal surface of the lungs

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15
Q

the flow of air in the respiratory passage

A 
external nostrils
nasal chamber
internal nares
nasopharynx
glottis(part of the larynx)
trachea
primary bronchi
secondary bronchi
tertiary bronchi
bronchioles

alveolar ducts
atria
alveolar sac
alveoli

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16
Q

external nostrils

A

holes in the nose above the upper lip

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17
Q

nasal chambers

A

pseudostratified ciliated columnar, non-ciliated brush border columnar, cuboidal and goblet cells lining
mucus from the goblet cells trap dust
moisture to make the air humid
brings the temperature of the incoming air up to body temp

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18
Q

internal nares

A

posterior openings of nasal cavities that lead to the nasopharynx

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19
Q

nasopharynx

A

only air passes through

opens into the trachea through the glottis(opening to the upper part of the larynx)

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20
Q

larynx

A

voice box
cartilage
the upper part of the trachea
opening called glottis

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21
Q

cartilages of larynx

A
  1. thyroid cartilage: most prominent,c shaped, incomplete dorsally ,called Adam’s apple(hyaline)
  2. cricoid cartilage: lies below the thyroid cartilage, signet ring-shaped(hyaline)
  3. arytenoid cartilages: two pyramid-shaped cartilages on the posterior wall of the larynx,attached to vocal cords(hyaline + elastic)
  4. corniculate: two conical nodules of elastic-fibrocartilage which lie at the apices of arytenoid cartilages
  5. cuniform: two elongated club-shaped of elastic fibro-cartilage which lie above and anterior to corniculate cartilages. these connect the epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilage
  6. epiglottis: leaf-like single cartilage that projects into the pharynx
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22
Q

what is the thyrohyoid membrane

A

broad flat membrane attached to the hyoid bone above and thyroid cartilage below

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23
Q

vocal cords present in the larynx

A

one pair of false vocal cord above the true vocal cords. they do not participate in sound production
one pair of inner true vocal cords which produce sound

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24
Q

vocal cords in men

A

well developed, thick and longer

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25
Q

trachea

A

windpipe
a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity
lined by incomplete POSTERIORLY cartilaginous rings to prevent it from collapsing during inspiration
pseudostratified ciliated columnar mucus-secreting cells

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26
Q

where does the trachea divide into primary bronchi

A

5th thoracic vertebrae

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27
Q

what do bronchi divide into

A

divide to form terminal branching called bronchioles(lobular-terminal-respiratory). supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings(NOT IN BRONCHIOLES)

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28
Q

alveoli

A

thin-walled irregular walled balloon like structures well supplied with blood vessels. the exchange of gases takes place here.

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29
Q

number of alveoli in both lungs combined

A

300-500 million

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30
Q

surfactant active agent

A

lecithin secreted by type 2 alveolar epithelial cells, reduces the surface tension between the alveolar fluid and air. it prevents collapsing of the lungs’ alveoli

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31
Q

position of the lungs

A

dorsally by the ventral column and ventrally by the sternum, laterally by the ribs
it’s closed below by the diaphragm

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32
Q

what is the diaphragm

A

dome-shaped structure made up of muscles and separates the thoracic and abdominal cavity

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33
Q

membranes enclose the lungs

A

two membranes called pleura
the outer pleura membrane is in close contact with the thoracic cavity and the inner pleura membrane is in close contact with the surface of the lungs

space between the two membranes is called the pleura cavity filled with pleura fluid

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34
Q

function of pleural fluid

A

lubricates the membranes so there is no friction and the membranes may slide over each other

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35
Q

colour of the lungs

A

pink at birth

greyish when older due to deposition of carbonaceous materials

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36
Q

right lung vs left lung

A

the right lung is shorter but wider due to accommodating for the liver and the left lung is longer but narrower as accommodating for the heart

the left lung is divided by an oblique fissure, dividing it into 2 lobes, the left inferior and left superior
the right lung is divided into 3 lobes, the right inferior,right middle and right superior

each lobe has segments which are further divided into lobules
10 segments in the right and 8 in the left

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37
Q

weight of each lung

A

625R

565L

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38
Q

the conducting part of the respiratory pathway and its function

A 
external nostrils
nasal chamber
internal nares
nasopharynx
glottis(part of the larynx)
trachea
primary bronchi
secondary bronchi
tertiary bronchi
bronchioles

they conduct air,clear the air, moist the air, warm the air

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39
Q

the exchanging part of the respiratory pathway and its function

A

alveolar ducts
atria
alveolar sac
alveoli

diffusion of gases

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40
Q

steps involved in respiration

A 
breathing
diffusion of gases b/w lungs and blood
transport of gases
diffusion of gases between blood and tissue
utilisation of o2
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41
Q

biochemical reaction of respiration

A

c6h12o6(present inside cells)+o2–>

6co2+6h2o+energy(utilised in performing activities)

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42
Q

the two stages of the mechanism of breathing

A

inspiration

and expiration

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43
Q

how does air move in and out of lungs

A

pressure gradient, from high to low pressure

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44
Q

inspiration

A

contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles in the anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axis
increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity
a decrease in pressure in the lungs

45
Q

expiration

A

relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles in the anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axis
a decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity
an increase in pressure in the lungs

46
Q

forceful expiration

A

contraction of inner internal costal muscles, pulling the ribs down and inwards
contraction of abdominal muscles, therefore, compresses the abdomen and pushes the content towards the diaphragm

the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases and pressure increases.

47
Q

what are hiccups

A

jerky incomplete inspiration sound which occurs due to sudden spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm and sudden closure of the glottis
it is due to the irritation of sensory nerve endings in the digestive tract

48
Q

whats snoring

A

the noise produced during sleep, it is the rough rattling inspiratory sound produced by the vibration of vocal cords and the partial blockage of the respiratory tract by the tongue

49
Q

rate of breathing in a normal healthy person

A

12-16 times per minute

50
Q

what is a spirometer

A

estimate the volume of air involved in breathing movements which helps in the clinical assessment of pulmonary functions

51
Q

what are respiratory volumes

A 
the amount of air  which our lungs can hold at a certain condition
tidal volume
inspiratory reserve volume
expiratory reserve volume
residual volume
52
Q

tidal volume(TV)

A

normal breathing
the volume of air inspired and expired
500ml
lowest respiratory volume

53
Q

inspiratory reserve volume(IRV)

A

the additional or extra volume of air, a person can inspire on forceful inspiration
2500-3000ml

54
Q

expiratory reserve volume(ERV)

A

the additional or extra volume of air, a person can expire on forceful expiration
1000-1100ml

55
Q

residual volume(RV)

A

air that remains in the lungs after forceful expiration
1100-1200ml
doesn’t let the alveoli collapse on themselves

56
Q

respiratory capacities

A 
addition of two or more respiratory volumes 
inspiratory capacity
expiratory capacity
function residual capacity
vital capacity
total lung capacity
57
Q

inspiratory capacity

A

the total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration
TV+IRV=500+2500

58
Q

expiratory capacity

A

the total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal inspiration
TV+ERV=500+1000

59
Q

function residual capacity

A

the volume of air that will remain in the lungs after a normal expiration
ERV+RV=1000+1100

60
Q

vital capacity

A

maximum volume of air a person can breathe

ERV+IRV+TV=1000+2500+500

61
Q

total lung capacity

A

the total volume of air present in the lungs and respiratory tracts after a maximum inspiration
ERV+IRV+TV+RV=1000+2500+500+1100

62
Q

hering-Breuer reflex

A

in the bronchi and bronchioles, stretch receptors are present, they prevent the overstretching of lungs, nerve impulses are sent via the vagus nerve to inhibit the inspiratory area. as a result, expiration begins

the protective and preventive mechanism for over-inflation of lungs.

63
Q

the trachea is lined with incomplete rings of

A

hyaline cartilage

64
Q

the thoracic cage is made up of

A

ribs, sternum and thoracic vertebrae

65
Q

how does diffusion of gases take place

A

from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure

66
Q

factors affecting the rate of diffusion of gases

A
  1. solubility: gases having high solubility diffuse at a faster rate . co2 diffuses 25 times faster than o2
  2. partial pressure: from higher to lower
  3. thickness of membrane: thicker the membrane, lesser the diffusion
67
Q

the alveolar capillary membrane

A

3 layers(0.2mm total thickness)
thin squamous epithelium of alveoli that lines it
endothelium lining of alveolar capillaries
basement substance between these 2 layers

68
Q

partial pressure of o2 in atmosphere and alveoli

A

159 and 104 respectively

69
Q

the partial pressure of o2 in tissues/deoxy blood and oxy blood

A

40 and 95 respectively

70
Q

the partial pressure of co2 in atmosphere and alveoli

A

0.3 and 40

71
Q

the partial pressure of co2 in tissues/deoxy blood and oxy blood

A

45 and 40

72
Q

what happens in pneumonia

A

accumulation od lymph and mucus in alveoli which impairs the exchange of gases

73
Q

how is oxygen transported

A 
in dissolved form through plasma(3%)
as oxyhaemoglobin(97%) by RBC
74
Q

what is one unit of oxyhaemoglobin made of

A

one molecule of haem,4 molecules of oxygen, globulin proteins

75
Q

what causes o2 to bind with haemoglobin in the first place

A

the high partial pressure difference between alveoli and the deoxy blood capillaries

76
Q

what makes the oxygen dissociate from haemoglobin

A

decrease in the partial pressure of o2 in blood causes weakening of bond and moves towards tissues where there is lower partial pressure of oxygen
increase in acidity
decrease in pH
high temperature

77
Q

amount of haemoglobin in 100 ml of blood

A

15g

78
Q

the capacity of 1g of haemoglobin to combine with o2

A

1.34 ml o2/ g of haemoglobin

79
Q

oxygen level in arteries and venules

A

20ml and 14.4 ml/100 ml of blood

80
Q

under strenuous exercise, the o2 level falls to

A

the level falls to about 4.4ml/100ml of blood, approximately 15 ml of o2 is transported by Hb during exercise

81
Q

oxygen dissociation curve

A

relationship between pO2 and(vs) percentage saturation of Hb with o2 is known as O2 dissociation curve

82
Q

when is the haemoglobin in the blood 50% saturated with o2(P50)

A

when pO2 is 25mm Hg

83
Q

indication of a shift to the right in the oxygen dissociation curve

A

dissociation

84
Q

indication of a shift to the left in the oxygen dissociation curve

A

association

85
Q

factors responsible for a shift to the right in the oxygen dissociation curve

A

low partial pressure of oxygen
high partial pressure of co2( 40mm saturation point)
high H+ ion concentration and decrease in pH(acidic)
high temperature

86
Q

where does the shift to the right in the oxygen dissociation curve occur

A

tissues

87
Q

factors responsible for a shift to the left in the oxygen dissociation curve

A

the high partial pressure of oxygen
the low partial pressure of co2
less h+ ion concentration( high pH)
low temperature

88
Q

where does the shift to the left in the oxygen dissociation curve occur

A

alveoli

89
Q

shape of o2 dissociation curve

A

sigmoid

90
Q

what is bohrs effect

A

with a rise in pCO2 and fall in pH, decreases oxygen affinity and decreasing oxygen affinity to Hb
therefore raising P50

91
Q

what does increase in diphosphoglyceric acid do

A

shift the HbO2 curve to the right

92
Q

who has higher affinity for o2, foetal or adult haemoglobin

A

foetus

93
Q

why does foetus haemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen

A

it binds BPG less strongly

94
Q

why is myoglobin affinity for o2 curve hyperbolic

A

it only has one fe2+ group

95
Q

what is carbon monoxide poisoning

A

carboxyhaemoglobin
stable compound with no place for oxygen
headache, dizziness,nausea,death
250 times more stable than oxygen binding

96
Q

SARS

A

severe acute respiratory syndrome
causative agent, coronavirus member of the influenza
Feb 26,2003,china

97
Q

what is the respiratory pigment present in earthworms and nereis

A

haemoglobin

98
Q

cyanosis

A

colour of skin and the mucous membrane becomes bluish when there is a deficiency of oxygen in blood

99
Q

hypoxia

A

oxygen shortage in tissues

100
Q

4 types of hypoxia

A
  1. anaemic hypoxia: oxygen is reduced due to anaemia
  2. cytotoxic hypoxia: cyanide poisoning. utilization of o2 is impaired in the body cells
  3. stagnant hypoxia: due to heart failure, reduced pumping of the heart.
  4. hypoxic hypoxia: insufficient oxygen in the air at high altitudes
101
Q

transport of co2

A
  1. dissolved form through plasma: 7%. it gets dissolved in the blood plasma and is carried in solution to the lungs.
  2. as bicarbonate ions:70% co2 diffuses into rbcs and binds with water to form carbonic acid which dissociates to give hydrogen and bicarb ions.
  3. by carbaminohaemoglobin:20-25% , co2 binds with the globulin part of the haemoglobulin
102
Q

enzyme for facilitating forming bicarbonate ions in RBCs

A

carbonic anhydrase

103
Q

bicarbonate ion reaction from tissues to blood

A

co2+h2o->h2co3->h+ + hco3-

104
Q

bicarbonate ion reaction from blood to lungs

A

h+ + hco3- ->h2co3->co2+h2o

105
Q

factors that affect the binding of co2 with Hb

A

in tissues: high pco2, low po2

in alveoli: low pco2 and high po2

106
Q

amount of co2 delivered by the blood to alveoli

A

4ml per 100 ml of blood

107
Q

hamburgers phenomenon

A

at tissue level, the Hco3- ions diffuse out into the plasma and cl- ions enter the RBC

at alveoli level: the Hco3- ions diffuse into the RBC from the plasma and the cl- ions move out

108
Q

Haldane effect

A

effect of oxyhaemoglobin formation or dissociation
oxyhaemoglobin is a strong acid which releases hydrogen ions. this causes the formation of H2CO3
due to increase acidity, co2 loses its power to bind with haemoglobin

human physiology (9 decks)

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