Resp Flashcards
What are the primary functions of the respiratory system?
Supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
Which structures comprise the upper respiratory system?
Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
What is the role of the nasal conchae?
Increase mucosal surface area and enhance air turbulence to filter, warm, and moisten air.
Which structures are part of the lower respiratory system?
Larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
What is the function of the epiglottis?
Prevents food and liquids from entering the airway during swallowing.
What are the four processes of respiration?
Pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, and internal respiration.
Define pulmonary ventilation.
The movement of air into and out of the lungs (breathing).
What is external respiration?
The exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood.
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Primarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells; a small amount is dissolved in plasma.
What factors influence hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen?
Partial pressure of oxygen (PO₂), temperature, blood pH, and concentration of BPG.
Where are the respiratory control centers located?
In the medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem.
What is the role of the medullary respiratory centers?
Set the basic rhythm of breathing.
How do chemoreceptors influence breathing rate?
They detect changes in CO₂, O₂, and pH levels in the blood and adjust breathing rate accordingly.
What is hypercapnia?
An elevated level of carbon dioxide in the blood.
How does the body respond to hypercapnia?
Increases the rate and depth of breathing to expel more CO₂.
What is tidal volume (TV)?
Air moved in or out during normal breathing (~500 mL).
Define inspiratory reserve volume (IRV).
Air inhaled beyond normal inspiration.
What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?
Air exhaled beyond normal expiration.
Explain residual volume (RV).
Air remaining in lungs after maximal exhalation.
How is vital capacity (VC) calculated?
VC = TV + IRV + ERV.
What is the primary driving force for oxygen diffusion in the lungs?
The partial pressure gradient of oxygen between the alveoli and the blood.
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
Dissolved in plasma, chemically bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions in plasma.
What is the chloride shift?
The exchange of chloride and bicarbonate ions across red blood cell membranes to facilitate CO₂ transport.
What effect does a rightward shift of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve have?
Decreases hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen, facilitating oxygen release to tissues.
What conditions can cause a rightward shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?
Increased CO₂, increased H⁺ concentration (decreased pH), increased temperature, and increased BPG levels.
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
Warms and humidifies air, filters particles, houses olfactory receptors.
Which bones contain sinuses?
Frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary bones.
Which part of the pharynx is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium?
Nasopharynx.
Which structure connects the nasal cavity to the nasopharynx?
Internal nares.
What structure is known as the ‘windpipe’?
Trachea.
What is the function of the epiglottis?
Prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing.
What are the vocal cords and their function?
True vocal cords are elastic folds that produce sound; false cords do not.
What is the glottis?
The space between the vocal cords.
What structure bifurcates into the larynx and esophagus?
Laryngopharynx.
What are the three branches of the bronchial tree?
Primary, secondary (lobar), and tertiary (segmental) bronchi.
What are the lobes of the lungs?
Right: 3 lobes; Left: 2 lobes with cardiac notch.
What is the hilum?
The area on the lung where bronchi, blood vessels, and nerves enter/exit.
What are the two types of alveolar cells?
Type I (gas exchange) and Type II (secrete surfactant).
What is the function of surfactant?
Reduces surface tension in alveoli to prevent collapse.
What is the respiratory membrane composed of?
Type I alveolar cell, basement membrane, and capillary endothelium.
What is the pleural cavity?
A fluid-filled space between visceral and parietal pleura that reduces friction and keeps lungs inflated.
What is Boyle’s Law?
Pressure is inversely related to volume (P=1/V).
What happens during inhalation?
Diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure drops, air flows in.
What happens during exhalation?
Diaphragm relaxes, thoracic volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure rises, air flows out.
What muscles are used in forced expiration?
Internal intercostals and abdominal muscles.
What is tidal volume (TV)?
Air moved in or out during normal breathing (~500 mL).
What is inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)?
Air inhaled beyond normal inspiration.
What is expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?
Air exhaled beyond normal expiration.
What is residual volume (RV)?
Air remaining in lungs after maximal exhalation.
What is vital capacity (VC)?
IRV + TV + ERV.
What is total lung capacity (TLC)?
VC + RV.
Where does external respiration occur?
At the alveoli between air and blood.
Where does internal respiration occur?
At the tissues between blood and cells.
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
1.5% in plasma, 98.5% bound to hemoglobin.
What factors weaken O2-Hb bond?
Increased CO2, increased temperature, decreased pH, increased DPG.
How is carbon dioxide transported?
7% in plasma, 23% bound to Hb, 70% as bicarbonate (HCO3-).
What enzyme converts CO2 + H2O to H2CO3?
Carbonic anhydrase.
What is the Bohr effect?
Low pH enhances O2 unloading from Hb.
What is the chloride shift?
Exchange of HCO3- and Cl- to maintain ionic balance in RBCs.
What are the respiratory centers in the brain?
Medullary rhythmicity center (VRG, DRG) and pontine respiratory centers.
What is the most powerful respiratory stimulus?
Increased CO2 levels.
Where are central chemoreceptors located?
In the medulla, monitoring pH of CSF.
Where are peripheral chemoreceptors located?
In the carotid and aortic bodies, monitoring O2 and CO2 in blood.
What is the primary function of the upper respiratory system?
Warms, humidifies, and filters air
What structures support the nose?
Bone and hyaline cartilage
What are the nostrils also known as?
External nares
What is the nasal cavity lined with?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
What divides the nasal cavity on the midline?
Nasal septum
What are the bony foundations of the nasal septum?
- Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
- Vomer
What are the ridges found on the lateral walls of the nasal cavity called?
Nasal conchae
Name the three types of nasal conchae.
- Superior nasal conchae
- Middle nasal conchae
- Inferior nasal conchae
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
- Warms and humidifies incoming air
- Entraps dust and small particles
- Contains olfactory receptors
Where are the sinuses located?
- Frontal bone
- Ethmoid bone
- Sphenoid bone
- Maxillary bones
What are the functions of the sinuses?
- Reduce the weight of the skull
- Affect the sound of the voice
What is the pharynx commonly known as?
Throat
What are the three regions of the pharynx?
- Nasopharynx
- Oropharynx
- Laryngopharynx
What type of epithelium lines the nasopharynx?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
What does the oropharynx contain?
Palatine and lingual tonsils
What is the function of the larynx?
Guards the entrance of the airway and produces sound
What is another name for thyroid cartilage?
Adam’s apple
What shape is the epiglottis?
Pringle potato chip shaped
What are the two pairs of vocal cords called?
- Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
- True vocal cords (create sound)
What is the glottis?
The vocal cords and the open space of the lumen between them
What does the trachea consist of?
15-20 incomplete rings of tracheal cartilage connected by annular ligaments
What does the trachea bifurcate into?
Primary bronchi
What are the components of the bronchial tree?
- R and L primary bronchi
- Secondary (lobar) bronchi
- Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
- Bronchioles
How many lobes does the right lung have?
3 lobes
What is the cardiac notch?
A notch in the left lung
What are the two layers of pleura?
- Visceral pleura
- Parietal pleura
What is the function of the alveoli?
Gas exchange
What are the two cell types that make up the alveoli?
- Type I cells (simple squamous epithelium)
- Type II cells (secrete surfactant)
What is Boyle’s law?
Pressure is inversely related to volume (P=1/V)
What is intrapulmonary pressure?
Pressure inside the airway
What is the Hering-Brauer reflex?
Stretch receptors inhibit further inhalation when lungs are stretched
What is tidal volume (TV)?
Volume of air moved in or out during normal, quiet breathing
What is vital capacity (VC)?
Maximum amount of air that can be controlled consciously
What is minute respiratory volume (MRV)?
Amount of new air moved into the respiratory passageways per minute
What is external respiration?
Gas exchange between the lungs and blood
What is Dalton’s Law?
Total pressure of a gas equals the pressures exerted independently by each gas in the mixture
What is the primary way oxygen is transported in the blood?
Bound to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin)
What factors can weaken the O2-Hb bond?
- Increased PCO2
- Decreased pH
- Increased temperature
What is the O2-Hb dissociation curve?
Describes the relationship between oxygen saturation of hemoglobin and the partial pressure of oxygen
How does fetal hemoglobin differ from adult hemoglobin?
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2
What shape does the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve take?
An S shaped curve
This shape indicates the cooperative binding of O2 to hemoglobin.
What does a rightward shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve indicate?
Decreased affinity for O2 (weaker bond)
This means hemoglobin is less likely to hold onto oxygen.
What does a leftward shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve indicate?
Increased affinity for O2 (stronger bond)
This means hemoglobin is more likely to hold onto oxygen.
How does fetal hemoglobin compare to non-fetal hemoglobin in terms of O2 affinity?
Fetal Hb has a higher affinity for O2 than non-fetal Hb
How much CO2 is transported dissolved in plasma?
7%
What percentage of CO2 is bound to hemoglobin in the form of carbaminohemoglobin?
23%
What percentage of CO2 is transformed into bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)?
70%
What enzyme combines water with CO2 to form carbonic acid?
Carbonic anhydrase
What is the reaction that forms carbonic acid from CO2 and water?
CO2 + H2O ——carbonic anhydrase—-→ H2CO3
What happens to carbonic acid in a watery solution?
It dissociates, eliciting H+
This process decreases pH and makes the solution more acidic.
What is the Bohr effect?
Facilitates O2 unloading from Hb due to a decrease in pH
What is the chloride shift?
A counter transport mechanism that imports one Cl- for each HCO3- exported
What are the two processes involved in external respiration?
- O2 loading
- CO2 unloading
What percentage of O2 enters the RBC and binds to hemoglobin during external respiration?
98.5%
What is the main function of the medullary rhythmicity center?
Control basic inspiratory drive
What are the two groups of neurons in the medullary rhythmicity center?
- Ventral respiratory group (VRG)
- Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
What does the ventral respiratory group (VRG) innervate?
The diaphragm
What does the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) innervate?
Intercostal muscles
Which group of neurons fine-tunes the length of inspiration and expiration?
Pontine respiratory centers
What does the peripheral chemoreceptors monitor?
O2 levels
What is the main factor that stimulates breathing according to blood monitoring?
O2 must be significantly low
What does a higher PCO2 in arterial blood stimulate?
Increased respiratory rate
What is the relationship between PCO2 and pH?
Higher PCO2 causes a decrease in pH
What does H+ concentration increase lead to in terms of respiratory rate?
Immediate increase in respiratory rate
What percentage of the response due to H+ concentration is due to peripheral chemoreceptors?
25%
What percentage of the response due to H+ concentration is due to central chemoreceptors?
75%
What is the reaction that leads to increased H+ concentration due to CO2?
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-
Which structure is not lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue?
Oropharynx
The pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue lines the nasopharynx, trachea, and bronchioles, but not the oropharynx.
Which of the following describes the glottis?
Opening between the vocal cords
The glottis is the space between the vocal cords that plays a crucial role in sound production.
Which of the following bones do not contain a sinus?
Nasal
The nasal bone does not contain any sinus cavities, unlike the frontal, ethmoid, and maxillary bones.
Which structure penetrates the lungs?
Primary bronchi
The primary bronchi are the main passageways that lead into the lungs from the trachea.
What is the function of surfactant?
Ease surface tension
Surfactant reduces surface tension in the alveoli, preventing collapse and aiding in gas exchange.
The pleural cavity:
Is a fluid filled cavity
The pleural cavity contains serous fluid that reduces friction and allows for smooth lung movement.
Which of the following rules pertains to the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas?
Boyle’s law
Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a gas is inversely related to its volume.
If atmospheric pressure= 100 mm Hg, and O2 makes up 30% of air, what is the partial pressure of O2?
30 mm Hg
The partial pressure of a gas is calculated by multiplying the total pressure by the fraction of that gas in the mixture.
If PCO2 in the alveolus= 50 mm Hg, and the PCO2 in the blood= 75 mm Hg, which direction will CO2 move?
Blood Lungs until blood=50 mm Hg
CO2 will diffuse from the blood (higher concentration) to the alveolus (lower concentration).
Gas exchange between the lungs and blood is known as:
External respiration
External respiration involves the exchange of gases in the lungs, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Which of the following rules pertains to the movement of a gas between a gas and liquid state?
Henry’s law
Henry’s law states that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure.
Which gas is most soluble in blood?
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is more soluble in blood than oxygen, which influences gas transport and exchange.
Which part of hemoglobin binds to oxygen?
Heme group
The heme group contains iron, which is essential for oxygen binding in hemoglobin.
In which scenario would Hb be most saturated with O2 at a PO2=40 mm Hg?
10 degrees celsius
Lower temperatures generally increase hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen.
In which scenario would Hb be least saturated with O2 at a PO2=40 mm Hg?
43 degrees Celsius
Higher temperatures decrease hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen, leading to lower saturation.
Which of the following situations enhance Hb’s affinity for O2?
Increased pH
An increase in pH typically enhances hemoglobin’s ability to bind oxygen.
What is the primary mode of transport for CO2?
HCO3-
The majority of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma.
Where is HCO3- produced?
Inside RBC’s
Bicarbonate is formed in red blood cells during the conversion of carbon dioxide.
A decrease in pH enhances O2 release from Hb. This is called:
Bohr effect
The Bohr effect describes how lower pH levels promote oxygen release from hemoglobin.
What is the most powerful stimulus to increase breathing?
Increased CO2
Elevated levels of carbon dioxide are the primary driver for stimulating respiration.
Which of the following is the most sensitive area regulating respiration?
Central chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors in the brain respond primarily to changes in CO2 levels in the blood.
Where can gas exchange occur?
Bronchioles
While the primary site of gas exchange is in the alveoli, gas exchange can also occur in the bronchioles.
What is the function of the nasal cavity? Select all correct answers.
• Warms and humidifies incoming air
• Sensation of smell
• Dividing the incoming air into two distinct volumes
The nasal cavity plays multiple roles in respiratory function, including olfaction.
Which sinus is not continuous with the nasal cavity?
All sinuses open into the nasal cavity
This statement is incorrect; all sinuses typically drain into the nasal cavity.
Which part of the pharynx is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium?
Nasopharynx
The nasopharynx is the only part of the pharynx lined with this type of epithelium.
Which region of the pharynx bifurcates?
Laryngopharynx
The laryngopharynx is the region that leads to both the esophagus and trachea.
Which region produces sound?
Larynx
The larynx contains the vocal cords and is responsible for sound production.
The ____ is known as the windpipe.
Trachea
The trachea is the main airway leading to the lungs.
Which type of conducting air passageway is always patent? Select all correct answers.
• Trachea
• Primary bronchi
These passageways maintain their structure and remain open under normal conditions.
What structure protects the lungs from inhaled food and fluid?
Epiglottis
The epiglottis covers the larynx during swallowing to prevent food from entering the airways.
Identify the connection between the nasal cavity and nasopharynx.
Internal nares
The internal nares are the openings that connect the nasal cavity to the nasopharynx.
Where is the aorta located?
Mediastinum
The aorta runs through the mediastinum, the central compartment of the thoracic cavity.
The lungs are organized into 3 ___ on the right and ___ on the left:
Lobes
The right lung has three lobes while the left lung has two lobes.
What is the best description of the pleural cavity?
Fluid filled cavity that separates the lungs
The pleural cavity is essential for lung function, facilitating movement during breathing.
What is the best description of the pleural cavity?
fluid filled cavity that separates the lungs
The pleural cavity is crucial for lung function as it allows for movement during breathing.
What cell type performs the primary function of the lungs?
Type I cells
Type I cells are crucial for gas exchange in the alveoli.
What is the function of surfactant?
reduces surface tension within an alveolus
Surfactant prevents alveolar collapse during exhalation.
If the visceral pleura separates from the parietal pleura:
the lung collapses
This condition is known as pneumothorax.
According to Boyle’s law, pressure changes are related to:
volume of the container
Boyle’s law states that pressure and volume are inversely related.
The intrapulmonary pressure could be described as:
pressure inside the alveoli
It is critical for determining airflow during breathing.
When the alveolar volume increases:
intrapulmonary pressure decreases
This decrease allows air to flow into the lungs.
Identify the factors that affect inspiration: Select all correct answers.
- diaphragm contraction
- contraction of external intercostal muscles
These factors increase thoracic cavity volume.
Contraction of muscles are used to increase the size of the thoracic cavity. Which muscles?
- external intercostals
- diaphragm
- sternocleidomastoid
These muscles work together to facilitate inhalation.
Which muscles are used to blow up a balloon?
- internal intercostals
- abdominal muscles
These muscles help force air out during exhalation.
When the diaphragm contracts:
intrapulmonary pressure decreases and air moves in
This process is essential for inhalation.
Which pressure is always lower than atmospheric pressure?
intrapleural pressure
This negative pressure is crucial for lung expansion.
In order for the lung to increase volume:
- air must be moved into the lung
- lung must be compliant
- lung must be adhered to the parietal pleura
These conditions are necessary for effective breathing.
What forces are responsible for normal exhalation? Select all correct answers.
- normal elasticity of the lungs
- relaxation of the diaphragm
These factors help expel air from the lungs.
When atmospheric pressure > intrapulmonary pressure:
air moves into the lungs
This is the basic principle of inhalation.
The amount of air that can be inhaled in addition to a normal inhalation is:
IRV
IRV stands for Inspiratory Reserve Volume.
The amount of air that we consciously control is the:
VC
VC stands for Vital Capacity.
The vital capacity is: Select all correct answers.
- IRV + TV + ERV
- TLC - RV
Vital capacity measures the maximum amount of air a person can exhale after a maximum inhalation.
Which of these values is a relatively constant number?
anatomic dead space
Anatomic dead space refers to areas in the respiratory system where no gas exchange occurs.
The alveolar ventilation rate is the total amount of air that a person inhales per minute.
false
Alveolar ventilation rate accounts for air that reaches the alveoli and is available for gas exchange.
Gas exchange between the lungs and the blood is called:
external respiration
This process occurs in the alveoli.
In order to predict the movement of CO2, you must know:
- the partial pressures of CO2
- the solubility of CO2
These factors influence gas diffusion across membranes.
Atmospheric pressure can be calculated using:
Dalton’s law
Dalton’s law relates to the partial pressures of gases in a mixture.
If the total air pressure = 500 mm Hg, and the PO2 = 50 mm Hg, then:
oxygen makes up 10% of air
This is calculated using the formula PO2 / total pressure.
If the PO2 in the lungs = 100 mm Hg and the PO2 in the blood = 100 mm Hg, then:
there would be no net movement of oxygen
This indicates equilibrium between the lungs and blood.
If the PCO2 at the tissues = 50 mm Hg and the PCO2 in the blood = 60 mm Hg, then:
CO2 will diffuse into the blood until tissue PCO2 = 60 mm Hg
This reflects the principles of gas exchange based on partial pressures.
Henry’s law pertains to internal gas exchange, but not external gas exchange.
false
Henry’s law applies to both internal and external gas exchanges.
Gas exchange depends on: Select all correct answers.
- presence of a concentration gradient
- presence of a pressure gradient
- solubility of the gas
These factors influence the efficiency of gas exchange.
What factors permit oxygen to diffuse across the respiratory membrane? Select all correct answers.
- thickness of the respiratory membrane
- oxygen pressure gradient
These factors are essential for effective oxygen transfer.
What factors affect gas exchange?
• presence of a concentration gradient
• presence of a pressure gradient
• molecular weight of the gas
• solubility of the gas
These factors influence the efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs.
What factors permit oxygen to diffuse across the respiratory membrane?
• thickness of the respiratory membrane
• oxygen pressure gradient
• carbon dioxide pressure gradient
• lipid solubility
These factors determine how effectively oxygen can move from the alveoli into the blood.
Where is oxygen found in the blood?
• bound to the globin portions of Hb
• bound to the iron atoms of Hb
• dissolved in the plasma
Oxygen is primarily transported bound to hemoglobin but also in a dissolved form.
How many molecules of oxygen can one Hb molecule transport?
4
Each hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four oxygen molecules.
What is the primary factor that facilitates oxygen binding to Hb?
an oxygen pressure gradient
The gradient influences the uptake of oxygen by hemoglobin.
What is a factor that determines how long RBCs remain effective?
• metabolic rate
• temperature
• oxygen pressure in environment
• amount of CO2 being transported
These factors can affect the lifespan and functionality of red blood cells.
Which of these factors weakens the O2-Hb bond?
• increased temperature
• decreased pH
• increased DPG
• increased PCO2
These conditions promote the release of oxygen from hemoglobin.
Which of these factors increases the affinity between O2 and Hb?
• decreased temperature
• increased pH
• decreased DPG
These conditions enhance hemoglobin’s ability to hold onto oxygen.
Which of these factors could cause the O2-Hb dissociation curve to shift to the right?
• increased PCO2
A rightward shift indicates a decreased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
At a P02 = 40mm Hg, the blood is:
75% saturated with oxygen
This saturation level indicates how much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin at this partial pressure.
If the PO2 at the tissues = 40 mm Hg, then it makes sense for the PO2 at the placenta to be:
20 mm Hg
A lower PO2 at the placenta allows for oxygen transfer from maternal to fetal circulation.
CO2 enters the blood during:
• internal respiration
This process refers to the exchange of gases between blood and tissues.
CO2 movement is dependent on which gradients?
• PCO2 gradient
• PO2 gradient
These gradients drive the diffusion of CO2 in and out of the blood.
CO2 is more soluble in blood compared to O2.
true
CO2 has a higher solubility in plasma than oxygen.
CO2 is transported in all of these ways, except:
bound to iron in Hb
CO2 binds to globin, not iron, in hemoglobin.
Carbonic acid is formed in:
• the tissues
• inside of RBCs
Carbonic acid formation occurs as CO2 reacts with water, primarily in red blood cells.
Acids in solution will dissociate to elicit:
H+
This dissociation leads to a decrease in pH.
Most CO2 travels in the blood in the form of:
HCO3-
Bicarbonate is the primary form of CO2 transport in the bloodstream.
When H+ are generated in a solution, they _____ the pH.
decrease
The introduction of H+ ions lowers the pH, making the solution more acidic.
When CO2 enters the blood, how much of it will enter a RBC?
70%
A significant portion of CO2 is taken up by red blood cells for transport.
CO2 unloading from the blood is facilitated by:
• PCO2 gradient
• acidic pH
• increased temperature
These conditions promote the release of CO2 from hemoglobin.
The neurons that innervate the diaphragm originate in the:
ventral respiratory group
This group is crucial for controlling respiration.
What is the most important factor affecting respiration?
carbon dioxide levels
CO2 levels are the primary driver for the regulation of breathing.
Oxygen is detected by:
• chemoreceptors in the aorta
• chemoreceptors in the common carotid arteries
These chemoreceptors monitor oxygen levels in the blood.
Which of these changes will elicit the most rapid response?
increase in arterial carbon dioxide levels
Changes in CO2 levels prompt quick adjustments in ventilation.
pH changes in the body are due to:
• excess expiration of CO2
• accumulation of CO2
These factors influence the acid-base balance in the body.
Which of these can cross the BBB?
dissolved CO2
Only certain molecules, like dissolved CO2, can pass through the blood-brain barrier.
Decreased body CO2 levels can be caused by:
• hyperventilation
Hyperventilation can lead to a drop in CO2 levels, affecting respiratory drive.
The medullary rhythmicity center is made up of:
• ventral respiratory group
• dorsal respiratory group
These groups are essential for the rhythmic control of breathing.
Holding your breath is regulated by:
Medullary rhythmicity center
This center manages the involuntary aspects of respiration.
Which centers are involved in the regulation of breathing?
VRG, DRG, Medullary rhythmicity center, Pons, Primary motor cortex
Holding your breath is regulated by which centers?
VRG, DRG, Medullary rhythmicity center, Pons, Primary motor cortex
Which condition would make the LEAST difference in the breathing rate?
decline in oxygen availability
Which condition would make the LEAST difference in the breathing rate?
increase in blood PCO2
Which condition would make the LEAST difference in the breathing rate?
change in the pH of the CSF
