Research Methods - Year 12 Flashcards
What Are Experimental Methods?
These are basically types of experiments that can be conducted,
In a posh way: they attempt to find a cause and effect relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable,
They also want to measure the extent of this effect.
Four Types Of Experimental Method?
(Four types of experiments that can be conducted):
Laboratory experiments,
Field experiment,
Natural experiment,
Quasi experiment.
Lab Experiments?
- Test effect of the IV on the DV,
- Controls as many variables as possible,
- Can be in any environment as long as it is controlled.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Lab Experiments?
Advantages:
- High degree of control,
- Replication is easy,
- Cause and effect can be determined easily,
Disadvantages:
- Variables are difficult to control,
- Low ecological validity,
- Demand characteristics,
- Low external validity.
Natural Experiments?
- IV occurs naturally, it is not manipulated by the experimenter,
- Could be an earthquake.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Natural Experiments?
Advantages:
- More representative,
- No demand characteristics,
- Real life makes it generalisable,
- High ecological validity,
- High external validity.
Disadvantages:
- Harder to replicate,
- Rime consuming and expensive,
- Difficult to replicate.
Field Experiments?
- Experiment performed in the real world rather than a lab.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Field Experiments?
Advantages:
- High ecological validity,
- Real life so generalisable,
- No demand characteristics,
- Results are more realistic,
Disadvantages:
- Environments may differ,
- Harder to control variables,
- Harder to replicate,
- Ethical issues.
Quasi Experiments?
- When you group individuals into separate groups.
E.g. cannot randomly allocate participants.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Quasi Experiments?
If the quasi experiment is controlled, the advantages and disadvantages are the same as LAB,
If the quasi experiment is not controlled then the advantages and disadvantages are the same as NATURAL.
Controlled - Advantages: - High degree of control, - Replication is easy, - Cause and effect can be determined easily,
Disadvantages:
- Variables are difficult to control,
- Low ecological validity,
- Demand characteristics,
- Low external validity.
Uncontrolled - Advantages: - More representative, - No demand characteristics, - Real life makes it generalisable, - High ecological validity, - High external validity.
Disadvantages:
- Harder to replicate,
- Rime consuming and expensive,
- Difficult to replicate.
Observational Techniques?
Simply: these are ways a psychologist can observe an experiment.
- Covert or overt,
- Participant or non-participant,
- Naturalistic or controlled,
- Structured or unstructured.
Covert Observations?
- Also known as ‘undisclosed’,
- Observing people without their knowledge,
- Participants might be informed after the study observation has taken place.
Evaluating Covert Observations?
Strength,
- Investigator effects are less likely because the investigator is hidden.
- Less chance the investigator will impact the study directly or indirectly,
- Less chance of demand characteristics occurring from participants,
- Participants behaviour is more representative of their every day behaviour.
Weakness,
- Ethical issues associated with the covert method,
- Participants are not aware they are taking part in a study and therefore cannot give fully informed consent nor exercise their right to withdraw,
- However, it is perfectly acceptable to observe human behaviour in a public place (e.g. shopping centre).
- Internal validity is good.
Overt Observations?
Is an observational technique where the observations are ‘open’ and the participants know/are aware that they are being observed.
E.g. filming or joking a class and informing the other students that you are carrying out an observation.
Evaluating Overt Observations?
Strength,
- The overt method is often more ethical.
- The participants are aware that their behaviour is being observed for the purposes of an investigation.
- It is possible for the participants to give consent. This also allows participants to exercise their right to withdraw themselves from the investigation.
Weakness,
- Investigator affects that reduce the internal validity. - It is possible for a bias to occur whereby what the investigator influences the behaviour of the participants in a way that was not intended.
- The participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims.
- This reduces the internal validity of the observation.
Participant Observations?
In a participant observation, the person who is conducting the observation also takes part in the activity being observed.
It can be either covert (a group member quietly observing the others without their knowledge) or overt (a group member using a camera to record the other members with their full knowledge.
Evaluating Participant Observations?
Strength,
- The Researcher can obtain in-depth data.
- The observer is in close proximity to the participants, so they are able to gain a unique insight into the phenomenon on in question.
- They are also unlikely to overlook any behaviour that, as an external observer, would be missed.
- This means that a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour can be achieved using this method of observation.
Weakness,
- Possibility of investigator effects and the impact of the researcher on the other participants behaviour.
- The participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims.
- Consequently, natural behaviour is not being observed, that’s reducing the internal validity of the observation because the investigator is a participant.
Non-Participant Observations?
In a non-participant observation, the person who was conducting the observation does not participate in the activity being observed.
This type of observation is quite common in educational settings, as in teacher evaluations, for example, when an observer sits in the corner of the room and watch is the lesson.
The aim is for the observer to be as an unobtrusive as possible and not engage with any of the activities happening.
Evaluating Non-Participant Observations?
Strength,
- Investigator effects are less likely compared to a participant observation.
- The researcher is often observing at a distance from the participants and in some situations, not visible to them at all.
- The behaviour of the investigator is unlikely to have a negative impact on the behaviour of the participants.
- This means that behaviour observed is more likely to be representative of natural and an altered human behaviour.
Weakness,
- Due to a lack of proximity to the participant behaviour being studied, the researcher might miss behaviours of interest.
- This means that unique insights which contribute to their understanding of the human behaviour being observed will be overlooked because of not being involved personally.
Naturalistic Observations?
Is an observation carried out in an un-altered setting in which the observer does not interfere in any way and merely observes the behaviour in question as it happens normally.
An example of this would be an observer observation carried out in a shopping centre as people go about their daily business.
Evaluating Naturalistic Observations?
Strength,
- A higher level of ecological validly can be achieved.
- In an observation of this type, the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour in the original environment in which it originally occurs. This means that the behaviour being recorded is likely to be more representative of every day activities and reflect spontaneous actions that sometimes occur incidentally.
Weakness,
- There are issues of gaining reliability with naturalistic observations. Since observations of this kind record behaviours which are occurring naturally as they unfold, it is difficult, if not impossible, for the exact same conditions to be replicated.
- Consequently, the test re-test method of checking reliability cannot be used with this type of observational design, as the researcher is not in control of variables.
(Basically, it lacks replicability).
Controlled Observations?
A controlled observation is conducted under strict conditions, such as in an observation room or lab setting, where extraneous variables (such as time, noise, temperature and visual distractions) can be controlled to avoid interference with the behaviour being observed.
Sometimes one way mirrors can be used. If participants know they are being observed, this is an overt method which is most commonly the case for controlled observations.
Evaluating Controlled Observations?
Strength,
- They can be replicated to check for reliability since the conditions are very controlled.
Weakness,
- Lower level of external validity.
- The high level of control creates an unnatural feeling. The participants behaviour may alter in response - meaning that the observation is no longer representing real life occurrences causing the ecological validity of the findings to be questionable.
Structured Observations?
In structured observations, the researcher uses coded schedules according to a previously agreed formula to document the behaviour and organise data into behavioural categories.
A behavioural category is when psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined. This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g, hitting + kicking).
Evaluating Structured Observations?
Strength,
- The researcher can compare behaviour between participants and across groups.
- The use of behavioural categories makes the coding of the data more systematic.
- When there is more than one observer, the behaviour schedule results in greater INTER-OBSERVER RELIABILITY.
- It is important for research methodologies to be consistent so that accurate comparisons can be made.
Weakness,
- Problems with gaining high internal validity.
- This is because the researcher may miss some crucial behaviours during the observation which could be important to the aim.
- As a result, the findings portrayed may not provide the full picture about the behaviour in question.
- This is a problem because what was intended to be measured was not achieved and it’s entirety.
Unstructured Observations?
And unstructured observation involves every instance of the observed behaviour being recorded and described in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviour that researchers are interested in does not occur very often.
Common in naturalistic observation.
Evaluating Unstructured Observations?
Strength,
- Richness in data obtained.
- Since behaviour is recorded in great detail, researchers are able to obtain a comprehensive view of human behaviour. This adds to the internal validity of the observational technique.
Weakness,
- This type of observation is also prone to OBSERVER BIAS due to the lack of behavioural categories.
- This is a problem because the observer may then only record behaviour which is of subjective value to them, and not a valid representation of what is being displayed.
- As a result, there may be a problem with INTER-OBSERVER RELIABILITY as there will be a lack of consistency in the observations recorded.
Dependant Variable?
What is being studied in the experiment. This variable DEPENDS on the in-dependant variable.
In-dependant Variable?
This is what is being changed in order to directly affect the dependant variable.
Types Of Observational Design?
Event sampling,
Time sampling,
Behavioural categories.
Time Sampling?
This is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals, e.g. every 10 seconds.
Event Sampling?
This is where the observer records the number of times that the target behaviour occurs, e.g. using a tally.
Time Sampling - Strengths and Weaknesses?
Strength - allow for a better use of time since fewer observations are made. This could result in more accurate data.
Weakness - Not every behaviour of relevance to the investigation will be counted if it occurs in between the time frames allocated.
Event Sampling - Strengths and Weaknesses?
Strength - Every behaviour of relevance in the perspective of the researcher is counted from beginning to end.
Weakness - Possibility that some behaviours could be missed if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded.
What Are Questionnaires?
A type of ‘self-report’ technique, where participants provide information relating to their thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
They can be open, closed or a mixture of both.
Open Questionnaires?
Allow participants to answer however they wish.
This makes qualitative data.
This results in detailed data.
Closed Questionnaires?
Restrict the participant to a predetermined set of responses.
This makes quantitative data.
There are 3 types of closed questions that can be asked in a closed questionnaire:
- Checklist,
- Likert response scale,
- Ranking.
What Is A Checklist?
A type of question that is asked in a closed questionnaire.
This is a type of question where the participants tick the answers that apply to them (basically multiple choice).
What Is A Likert Response Scale?
A type of question that is asked in a closed questionnaire.
This is a type of question where participants rate on a scale their views/opinions on a question.
E.g. circle the number that applies:
1 - Strongly agree, 2 - Agree, 3 - Not sure, 4 - Disagree, 5 - Strongly disagree.
What Is A Ranking Scale?
A type of question that is asked in a closed questionnaire.
This is where participants place a list of items in their preferred order.
E.g. rank the following 4 activity’s in order from your most preferred activity to your least. Scale: 1 = your favourite activity, 4= your least favourite activity.
Evaluation Of Open Questionnaires?
Strength - less chance of researcher bias. This is especially true if the questionnaire is anonymous. There is not a limitation to what you can write (there’s not just a multi choice) so there is less chance of the responses being influenced by the researcher’s expectations.
Weakness - participants might answer in a socially desirable way, where they try to portray themselves in the best possible way to the researcher. This means an open question may lack validity.
Evaluation Of Closed Questionnaire?
Strength - the data is quantitative. This type of data is easy to analyse statistically or in a graphical format. Direct comparisons can be made to compare groups of people or individuals. The researcher can also look for patterns which can lead to further research to be conducted.
Weakness - the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses that are of particular interest. Closed questions often produce a RESPONSE BIAS. This can happen because the participant doesn’t take time to read all questions properly, e.g. select ‘yes’ for every answer. This means the data collected will LACK VALIDITY.
What Is Important When Designing A Questionnaire?
- Keep the terminology simple and clear.
- Keep it as short as possible.
- Be sensitive; avoid personal questions. If you must, collect personal information at the end.
- Do not use leading questions.
- Do not use questions that make assumptions or sweeping statements.
- Pilot and modify the questionnaire.
What Are Interviews?
Another type of self-report technique which predominately take place on a face-to-face basis, although they can also happen over the telephone.
Three different interview designs:
- Structured interviews,
- Unstructured interviews,
- Semi-structured interviews.
Interviews are usually recorded, with the use of an interview schedule that the interviewer completes and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewees.
Structured Interviews?
Involve the questions decided in advance and they are asked in exactly the same order for each interviewee taking part.
The interviewer uses an interview schedule and will often record the answers to each question by taking notes/ticking boxes on their schedule.
Unstructured Interviews?
Conduced more like a conversation, with the interview only facilitating the discussion rather than asking set questions.
Very little decided in advance (only topic and questions needed to identify the interviewee). Therefore, this type of interview usually produces lots of qualitative data. Answers are usually audio or video recorded. Writing them down would ruin the relaxed atmosphere of this interview and there is too much said to write down.
Evaluation Of Structured Interviews?
Strength - quantitative data is easier to analyse statistically or in a graphical format. Direct comparisons can be made to compare groups of people or individuals. The researcher can also look for patterns which can lead to further research to be conducted.
Strength 2 - this interview is easily replicated to test for reliability because questions are asked in same order each time.
Weakness - investigator effects may play a role when the interview is replicated over so many times. The interviewer may, consciously or unconsciously, bias any responses given to the questions by the tone of voice, intonations, body language. This is based on the interviews perception, and might not be what the interviewee really means.
Evaluation Of Unstructured Interviews?
Can increases the VALIDITY of findings by reducing INVESTIGATOR EFFECTS - the reduction of investigator effects occurs because the investigator has less control over the questions and, therefore, answers. Because of this, it is less likely that participants will display demand characteristics in their interview responses.
Unstructured interviews generate large quantise of qualitative data. This allows the interviewer to gain lots of information on human behaviour. However, this also means that the data takes longer to analyse and is also costly to do so.
Statistical analysis can also be challenging, as the data collected is qualitative, making it more difficult to identify patterns without undergoing a content analysis first.
Semi-Structured Interviews?
Involve mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time.
The interviewer can deviate from the original questions and consequently, this type of interview also typically produces a large amount of qualitative data.
Evaluation Of Semi-Structured Interviews?
Strength - the use of these interviews can increase VALIDITY of findings. Open questions in these interviews may increase the chance of participants being honest and thus, reducing SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS. Participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with options.
However, the interviewer still retains control over the interview schedule which can cause investigator effects which can effect the behaviour of the participants negatively.
Semi-structured interviews also generate qualitative data. This allows interviewers to clarify the meaning of participants responses and gain further information that is required. This provides a unique insight into explaining human behaviour.
However, as a result of this qualitative data, the analysis of the data can be more difficult, time consuming and expensive to conduct compared to quantitive data.
