Gender

Question 1

Definition Of Sex?

Answer 1

The biological fact of being male or female.

The genotype is our genetic make-up and being male or female is determined by a pair of chromosomes.

XX = Female.
XY = Male.

Question 2

Definition Of Gender?

Answer 2

The way in which sex and societal norms interact to create attitudes, behaviours and personality is that are deemed appropriate for each sex.

Female traits are labelled feminine and male traits are labelled masculine.

Through socialisation, traits begin to diverge and children develop gender identity.

Question 3

Definition For Transgender?

Answer 3

When someone may feel they have been born as the wrong sex and identify more with the opposite sex.

Gender dysphoria.

Question 4

Definition For Gender Role?

Answer 4

Conforming to a gender identity by behaving in a gender appropriate manner based on what society expects.

Question 5

Definition For Feminine?

Answer 5

Female traits.

Question 6

Definition For Masculine?

Answer 6

Male traits.

Question 7

Definition For Sex-Role Stereotype?

Answer 7

Sex-role stereotyped are a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society.

These expectations are somehow communicated or transmitted through society and may be reinforced by parents, peers, the media and schools.

For example, females should be ‘feminine’ and have nurturing and gentle behaviour. Some sex-role stereotypes are sexist, for example, women should not have high levels of responsibility in a work place.

They are developed through observation, imitation and reinforcement (SLT).

Question 8

Definition Of Gender Identity?

Answer 8

How individuals classify themselves and create their individual sense of self.

Question 9

What Are Chromosomes?

Answer 9

The structure containing our DNA. Our sex chromosomes determine whether we are male (XY) or female (XX).

Question 10

Androgyny and BSRI - AO1?

Answer 10

When an individual has a balance of both masculine and feminine traits and cannot be categorised as purely feminine or masculine.

They have not conform to the gender roles set by their society and culture.

Bem believed that androgynous males and females are at an advantage as they can adapt to different situations and this will be useful in life. E.g. can be a caring mother figure to children and be able to physically push themselves to excel in Judo.

Bem believed that androgynous individuals of either sex are at the epitome of psychological health. Some current thinking suggest that androgynous individuals may be psychologically healthy because they are more creative and therefore more accomplished (Johnsson and Carlsson, 2001).

The Bem Sex Role Inventory measures masculinity, femininity and androgyny. It is a 60 question self-report test consisting of three groups of 20 adjectives (masculine, feminine and neutral).

Respondents were instructed to give the adjectives a number from 1 to 7, reflecting the degree to which they think the word applies to them. They were also asked to use all the numbers on the scale.

The T-test can then be used to assess whether an individual is more feminine, masculine or androgynous. If respondents score highly for feminine and masculine words, they are considered androgynous.

If they scored high on feminine and low on masculine, they are feminine.
If they score high on masculine and low and feminine, they are classed as masculine.

The BSRI is based on gender stereotypes, so what it’s measuring is how well you fit into the traditional sex role.

Masculine adjectives - aggressive, acts as a leader, forceful, athletic.
Feminine adjectives - affectionate, flatter-able.
Neutral adjectives - helpful, happy, friendly, adaptable.

Question 11

The Role Of Chromosomes And Hormones In Sex And Gender - AO1?

Answer 11

Chromosomes are made from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The 23rd pair (of 46) of chromosomes determines biological sex; females have the genotype XX, whilst males have the genotype XY. The ‘sex-determining region Y’ gene (SRY) is carried on the Y chromosome and causes testes to develop in the embryo. This produces angrogens (male sex hormones). Without androgens, the embryo would develop into a female.

The development of gender initiates through the influence of hormones. Testosterone is a male hormone and causes the development of male reproductive organs (at around 8 weeks). Animal studies show an association between increased testosterone and aggressive behaviour.

Oestrogen is a female hormone that determines sexual characteristics and menstruation. Oestrogen causes heightened emotionality and irritability during the menstrual cycle (premenstrual tension). In extreme cases, these symptoms are referred to as ‘premenstrual syndrome’ and have been used successfully as defences for criminal acts.

Oxytocin (‘love hormone’) is produced after giving birth in females and stimulates lactation, making it possible for mothers to breastfeed. It reduces the stress hormone, cortisol, and facilitates bonding, making the mothers feel ‘in love’ with their babies. Evidence suggests that men and women produce the same amount of oxytocin whilst kissing and sexual intercourse, which refutes the earlier argument that men are less intimate in relationships.

Question 12

Kohlberg’s Theory AO1?

Answer 12

Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory is a cognitive of explanation for gender development.

He believed children go through three stages in the development of gender:
- Gender identity (age 2-3). In this stage, the child recognises that they are a boy or a girl. However, they think that this can change. For example, a young boy may say “I want to be a Mummy when i grow up”.

• Gender stability (age 4-5). In this stage, the child now realises that gender is fixed and remains stable over time. For example, a little boy realises that he cannot be a mummy. Children are heavily influenced by external factors such as hair and clothes.
• Gender constancy (age 6-7+). The child now realises that gender is constant over all situations and time. The child is also not influenced by external factors, for example, the child realises that boys can have long hair and girls can play rugby.

At the stage of gender constancy , the child also begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models to identify with and imitate.

Munroe et al and Slaby an Frey are used as AO2 here.

Question 13

Munroe Et Al?

Answer 13

This is part of the AO2 (support) for Kholbergs cognitive explanation for gender development.

Munroe et al studied children across cultures, finding cross-cultural support for the theory.

She found that children progressed through the stages described by Kohlberg in all these different cultures.

Therefore, it can be concluded that these stages much must be biologically driven and not driven by social and cultural norms.

Question 14

Slaby and Frey?

Answer 14

AO2 for Kholbergs theory.

Slaby and Frey conducted research to test the accuracy of Kohlberg’s theory.

They interviewed 55 children at the ages of 2 to 5 years old.

They asked questions to determine what stage the child was in.

They first showed the children a picture of a boy and girl. They then asked “which ones are you?”. This was for gender identity.

They then asked “when you were little, were you a little girl or a little boy?” and then they asked “will you be a mummy or daddy when you are grown up?” This is to show gender stability.

They found that Kohlberg’s stages were correct: children became gender stable at ages 3-4.

To examine gender consistency, They asked “if you wore (insert photo of opposite sex clothes), would you be a girl or boy?” and “could you be a (insert photo of opposite sex) if you wanted to be?”.

After several weeks, they went on to test Kohlberg’s prediction that children at the gender constancy stage would pay more attention to the behaviour of same-sex models than children further down the stages.

They showed the children a film, men on one side of the screen, women on the other, performing various activities.

The children that were high in gender constancy showed a greater tendency to watch the same-sex model than those with low gender constancy.

This supports Kohlberg’s stage theory and the idea that children at the third stage look to role models the same sex as themselves.

Question 15

Cognitive Explanation For Gender Development?

Answer 15

We learn about two cognitive explanation theory’s for gender development:

1. The gender schema theory (Martin and Halverson),
2. Kohlberg’s cognitive explanation.

Cognitive explanations of gender development focus on how a child’s thinking changes as they get older.

These changes are universal, meaning that all children go through them (psychologists refer to this as a consequence of maturation). Children discover they are male or female (much like they develop in other ways), and then they identify with members of their own sex.

Question 16

Gender Schema Theory AO1?

Answer 16

The theory suggests that children play a more active role in their gender development from an earlier age. This process is not passive.

Gender schemas are a set of frameworks that outline how men and women should appropriately behave. Martin and Halverson suggest that once a child has established gender identity (age 2-3), they will search environments for information that encourages the development of gender schemas.

The theory suggests that by 6 years old, the child has a fixed and stereotypical idea about their gender. These stereotypes provide a framework that directs experience as well as allowing the child to understand themselves. For example, girls play with dolls and boys play with cars.
Gender schema are written about in the gender schema theory.

A third concept of the theory is the idea of ‘ingroups’ (schema appropriate to the childs own gender) and ‘outgroups’ (schema appropriate to the childs oposing gender). The theory states that around 8 years old, the child has developed schemas for both genders.

Shaffer suggests that children are not passive in their gender development, supporting the gender schema theory.

Question 17

Social Learning Theory AO1?

Answer 17

The social learning theory suggests that gender is developed through reinforcement of experiences and social observations.

Direct reinforcement occurs when children is praised/punished for a behaviour that is gender-appropriate. For example, boys may be encouraged for kicking a football or punished for being too gentle. Boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour (differential reinforcement).

Indirect (vicarious) reinforcement takes place when a child observers the praise/punishment of another individual. For example, a little girl may hear her mother be complimented for wearing a dress. Behaviours that are reinforced are more likely to be imitated if praised, and less likely to be imitated if punished.

Identification is the process in which a child associates themselves with role models (e.g. teachers, parents, celebrities). Modelling is the demonstration of a gender-appropriate behaviour, and is more likely to be imitated if the role model is similar to the observer.

The theory takes four mediational processes into account during gender development; attention (the extent to which the child watched the behaviour being demonstrated); retention (the extent to which the behaviour is remembered); motivation (the extent to which the child is willing to imitate the behaviour); and motor reproduction (the extent to which the child can physically imitate the behaviour).

Question 18

Atypical sex chromosome patterns - AO1?

Answer 18

Klinefelter’s syndrome is an example of an atypical sex chromsome pattern which affects around 1 in 1000 biological males. It is caused by an additional X chromosome (a genotype of XXY). Physical characteristics of the condition include; reduced body hair; breast development at puberty (gynecomstia); and underdevelopment of genitals. The condition also makes males more susceptible to diseases more common in females (e.g. breast cancer). Psychological characteristics of the condition include; poorly developed language skills; reduced reading ability; shyness; lack of interest in sexual activity; and reduced problem solving/memory skills.

Turner’s syndrome affects 1 in 5000 biological females. It is caused by the absence of an X chromosome (a genotype of X0). Affected individuals will have 45 chromosomes, rather than 46. Physical characteristics include; the lack of a menstrual cycle; underdeveloped ovaries (sterality); lack of breasts; and a ‘webbed’ neck. Psychological characteristics include; a higher than average reading ability; lack of mathematical skills; lack of spatial/visual memory; and social immaturity.

Question 19

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory - AO1?

Answer 19

Freud’s psychodynamic theory suggests that children pass through five psychosexual stages. The third stage, the phallic stage (age 3-6), is when a child develops gender identity.

During the Oedipus complex, boys develop unconscious feelings towards their Mother, and out of jealousy of their parents’ relationship, develop a hatred towards their Father. Out of fear of being castrated by their Father, boys repress their feelings for their mother (castration anxiety) and take on the gender roles of their Father.

Carl Jung suggested the Electra complex, in which girls experience penis envy (seeing themselves in competition with their Mother for her Fathers love). This results in resentment towards their Mother. Over time, girls come to accept they will never have a penis and substitute this envy for the desire to have children. Therefore, girls identify with the morals of their Mother.

The outcome of the phallic stage is that children experience identifercation with and develop the same morals as their same-sex parent (internalisation). Freud applied the Oedipus complex to Little Hans (age 5), who had a fear of horses. Freud suggested his fear of castration was substituted for by the fear of horses via an unconscious mechanism (displacement).

Question 20

Culture and gender roles - AO1?

Answer 20

It is suggested that if a particular gender role is consistent across different cultures, it can be concluded as innate (nature). If gender roles are different across cultures, it can be concluded as a result of social learning (nurture).

Mead studied tribal groups on the island of New Guinea. The Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life, whilst the men were ‘decorative’ (opposite to the Western stereotypes of men and women). This refutes the idea that there is a biological relationship between sex and gender, and suggets that gender roles are culturally determined.

Buss found patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries, across all continents; women sought men who could offer wealth,, whilst men sought women who had more attractive physical features. Munroe and Munroe further concluded that in most societies, men were typically the ‘breadwinners’ whilst women were seen as the ‘nurturers’. This research suggests that gender roles are innate.

Media provides gender stereotypes though role models, who children imitate. Men are portrayed as being independent ‘advice-givers’, whilst women are portrayed as being dependent ‘advice seekers’. Children with more exposure to popular forms of media display more gender-stereotypical behaviours (McGhee and Freuh). Self-efficacy (Bandura) suggests children’s beliefs of their capability of being able to carry out gender-appropriate behaviour increases through watching media. This suggests that gender roles are reinforced (and learned) through media.

Question 21

Gender identity disorder - AO1?

Answer 21

Gender identity disorder (GID) is when an individual experiences strong, persistent feelings of identerfication with the opposite gender and discomfort with their own assigned sex.

The Brain Sex theory suggests that GID is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a persons biological sex. Zhou et al studied a dimorphic area of the brain (areas different in males and females). In post-mordem studies, he found that six male-to-female transgender individuals had a similar BSTc size to females.

Heylens et al assessed 23 monozygotic twins with 21 dizygotic twins, where one of each pair was diagnosed with GID. He found 39% of the MZ twins were concordant for GID, compared to none of the DZ twins. This shows the role of genetic factors in GID development is significant.

Social-psychological explanations of GID are based on Freudian’s theory. Ovesery suggested the psychoanalytic theory, in which males develop extreme separation anxiety before gender identity and fantasies of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety. This results in the child adopting a female gender identity. Stroller interviewed GID males and found that they displayed overly close mother-son relationships, supporting this theory.

The cognitive explanation suggests there are two pathways of gender development; the first pathway suggests a ‘normal’ development of gender through the gender-schema theory, whilst the second suggests that a child develops their gender identity after their personal interests. Therefore, the dominating personal interests influence the child’s gender identity (rather than the other way around like the first pathway). For example, a young boy is interested in playing with dolls and then develops the gender identity that dolls are for boys.

Question 22

Androgyny and BSRI - AO3?

Answer 22

• Strength, the neutral words are there to take away demand characteristics as respondents would be less aware of the words being just feminine and masculine. Bem also built into her inventory a test of whether individuals were answering in a way that might give a favourable impression of themselves. Of the 20 neutral words, She made 10 socially desirable, for example, happy and 10 socially undesirable, for example, jealous. If all these 10 words were scored to make the individual come across well then this would indicate that the participant is answering in a socially desirable way.
• Weakness, The BSRI was based on norms in America, so we could argue that it is culturally biased as each society creates its gender roles. There have been other scales created for other cultures, for example, the modified Japanese masculine scale (JM) and the modified Japanese feminine scale (JF). It can be concluded that the BSRI has provided an excellent platform from which other psychologist across the world can build research evidence on androgyny.
• Weakness, The BSRI Was developed in 1971. Male and female roles have changed dramatically in the last three decades; therefore, the BSRI may not be relevant to todays society.
• Strength, There were originally over 200 traits that Bem filtered down to 60 using a selection of male and female judges. This is good as it means that lots of adjectives were considered, and those selected were chosen by a number of independent judges.

Question 23

Kohlberg’s Theory: AO3?

Answer 23

Support: The Social Learning Theory doesn’t take into account what children think and how gender roles develop and Kohlberg’s theory that does. He believes that children take a more active role in their gender development.

SLT states that children learn their gender identity through sex-typing (stereotyping according to what is typical for each sex) and reinforcement (learning through others). Kohlberg states that ‘the child’s sex-role concepts are the result of the child’s active structuring of his own experience; they are not passive products of social training’, suggesting that children play a part in deciding how they play and which activities they take part in, rather than it being forced upon them.

Support: Research evidence from Munroe et al. (1984) suggests that children do go through the three-stage process that Kohlberg outlined in his theory. This has implications: if children actively interact with the world around them to develop their gender identity, that may influence parental and educational decisions and policies.

Weakness to theory: Kohlberg’s theory states that there will be no or very little gender role behaviour shown before a child reaches gender constancy (aged 6-7+). But it is found that even at a very young age children show preferences for stereotypical gender- specific toys (Huston, 1983). This shows that there are limitations to the theory.

Question 25

Social Learning Theory AO3?

Answer 25

Support: Research in support of the SLT. Siegal (1987) found that little boys adopted gender-specific behaviours quicker than girls because fathers were more likely to reinforce appropriate gender behaviours in their sons. However, it could be argued that this doesn’t seem to have an effect on little boys that grow up in a fatherless household.

Support: The social learning theory makes sense. We see the behaviours described in our everyday lives. This makes it easier for us to generalise the research to the wider society.

Weakness: Does not suggest an adequate theory fr how learning processes change with age. For example, the mediational process suggests that children may find it difficult to perform behaviours if they are not physically or mentally capable. The theory suggests that the imitation of behaviour can occur from any age, after birth. Dubin suggests that the child may take note of the behaviour, selection and imitation does not come until later. This is consistent with Kohlbergs theory, suggesting that imitation doesn’t come until gender development. This suggests the theory is limited.

Question 25

The role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender - AO3?

Answer 25

Support - Reimer. Twin boys were born and a horrific circumcision occurred at six months old in one of the twins, in which he was left with no penis. A psychologist Money, was developing his theory of gender neutrality - that biological sex is less important than establishing gender identity. And so the twin, Bruce, was made to develop the gender identity of a female, dressed in girls clothes and given dolls to play with. Bruce (known as Brenda), suffered from extreme psychological problems and was eventually told the truth about her childhood. Brenda transitioned back to a man, and committed suicide in 2004. This shows that biological sex, determined by hormones, is a very important factor and works alongside gender identity.

Weakness - biologically deterministic. We would expect to find more differences between males and females if sex was determined solely by biology. Jacklin and Maccoby found significantly more differences within the sexes than between them. The social learning explanation suggests that social context in learning our gender identity and role influences our gender. The influence of social norms would explain cross-cultural differences between gender, whilst the influences of hormones and genotype do not.

Question 26

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory - AO3?

Answer 26

Weakness - Freud wrote a lot about the Oedipus complex but not much on the theorising of girls development. Carl Jung took on this theory. Freud admitted that women were a mystery to him and his notion of penis envy had been criticised as reflecting the Victorian patriarchal era. Hornet argues that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is the male experience of ‘womb envy’ - a reaction to women’s ability to nurture and sustain life. Horney argued that penis envy was a cultural concept, rather than an innate trait and challenged the idea that women’s gender development was founded on a desire to be a man - an androcentric assumption. Possible gender bias?

Weakness - the theory doesn’t support non-nuclear families. It can be assumed from Freud’s theory, that having one one parent, or two parents of the same sex, would have an adverse effect on the child’s gender development. Evidence does not support this. Golombok et al demonstrated how children from single-parent families went on to develop normal gender identities. Green further supported this, studying a sample of 37 children who were raised by gay or transgender parents. He concluded that only one child had a gender identity that was described as ‘non-typical’.

Strength - Little Hans (in AO1).

Question 27

Gender identity disorder - AO3?

Answer 27

Weakness of biological explanation - Twin studies used in biological explanation are inconclusive. It is difficult to separate the influence of nature and nurture. Twins (especially MZ) may influence each-other, and the environmental conditions they are exposed to are very similar.

Weakness of biological explanation - GID is rare and sample sizes in twins are extremely small, limiting the extent to which generalisations can be made.

Weakness of biological explanation - biologically reductionist. The theory simplifies complex conditions and behaviours to genetic, neuron atomic and hormonal level. Contributing factors to GID are ignored. An interactionist combination of several factors should be taken into consideration in explaining a condition as complex as GID.

Weakness of psychoanalytic theory - ovesey and persons explanation doesn’t provide an account of GOD in females as the theory only applied to male transgender individuals. Rekers suggests that gender disturbance in boys is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother. Furthermore, it is difficult to test whether GID is caused by separation anxiety in childhood. The fantasies are unconscious, and it is impossible to test unconscious thoughts in children, especially because the children are unaware of them.

Weakness of cognitive theory - the cognitive theory for GID is descriptive rather than explanatory. There is little explanation as to why a child may become interested in activities that are not consistent with its own sex, or how these activities bring about the development of non sex-typed schemas. There is an issue with the causation of the explanation.

Weakness of cognitive theory -

Question 28

Sex-role stereotypes - AO3?

Answer 28

Support - Futnham and Farragher found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts on TV adverts, compared to women who were often seen occupying family roles within domestic settings. This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread stereotypes concerning males and females behaviour. Shows how sex-role stereotyping can transmit through a society.

Weakness - there have been many counter-stereotypes focused on recently (e.g. Disney movie Brave). These challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Pinger found that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were show TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. However, it was found that ore-adolescents Boyd stereotypes became stronger following exposure to the non-traditional models. This provides a strength to sex-role stereotyping and a weakness.