Approaches Flashcards
Define introspection?
A systematic method used to study the mind by breaking up concours awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Define psychology and science?
Psychology - the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
Science - a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
Wundt and introspection?
Wundt opened the first ever lab dedicate to psychosocial enquiry in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
Wundt wanted to document and describe the nature of human consciousness. This became known as introspection (define introspection here).
Wundt and partners recorded their own conscious thoughts with the aim of breaking them down into constituent parts. This is called structuralism.
All introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time (such as a ticking metronome). The same standardised instructions were issued to all participants (allowing for replicability).
Wundts work is said to be scientific.
His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes - e.g. cognitive psychologist.
Used empirical methods.
The emerge of psychology as a science?
20th century - Watson’s main problem with introspection was that it produced data that was subjective, in that it varied greatly from person to person, so it became very difficult to establish general principles.
Watson was also highly critical of introspections focus on ‘private’ mental processes and proposed that a truly scientific psychology should restrict itself to only studying phenomena that can be observed and measured.
And so Watson developed the Behaviourist approach - the emerge of psychology as a science.
Watson and later Skinner brought the language, methods and rigour of science to psychology. They used highly controlled lab studies and were able to generalise their findings.
Many modern psychologists continue to rely on the experimental method as part of their research and practices.
However, the emergence of the Cognitive Approach meant that the study of mental processes is now seen as a legitimate and highly scientific area within psychology. Although these still remain private, cognitive Psychologists can make inferences about mental processes.
The biological approach makes use of experimental data, including brain scanning techniques, like fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) scans, to understand the structure and function of the human brain.
The cycle of scientific investigation is used by psychologists testing their concepts, making objective observations which can be replicated and then refining their theories according to the findings, before testing once again.
Weaknesses of Wundt’s study?
Weakness - his reserach into introspection was idiographic (focused on the individual, rather than generalising laws to others). Psychologists suggest that a nomothetic approach (study of general laws) would be more beneficial in psychological investigations because the research of introspection could be generalised to others.
Strength - Wundt’s introduction of psychological study has lead to the development and use of experimental methods in psychology.
Difference between punishment and negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement reinforces a behaviour, making it more likely to be repeated whilst punishment makes a behaviour less likely to be repeated.
The behaviourist approach - AO1?
The behaviourist approach attempts to explain behaviour through observations and learning. It has key assumptions, including:
- Psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour.
- All behaviour is learned.
- Humans are no more complex than animals.
- Research on animal behaviour is directly relevant to humans.
Pavlov developed the theory of classical conditioning; a type of innate learning in which a response is associated with a stimulus. His theory was tested using dogs, in which the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) was conditioned with food (unconditioned stimulus). This behaviour was repeated and formed a salivation response (conditioned stimulus), even when no food was present.
Skinner suggested that behaviour is learned through operant conditioning; positive reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by a reward and is more likely to be repeated; negative reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse consequence and is more likely to be repeated; punishment – when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and is less likely to be repeated.
Skinner created the Skinner box to test operant conditioning; the animals learned that when a lever is pressed, they are rewarded with a food pellet (positive reinforcement).
The social learning theory - AO1?
The social learning theory (SLT) explains behaviour through indirect and direct reinforcement. The main processes of the SLT are identification, modelling and imitation.
Bandura suggested our behaviour is learned through imitation of social observations. Indirect learning takes place through vicarious reinforcement; when an individual observes the rewarding of another person’s behaviour. Therefore, the behaviour is reinforced and imitated by the learner.
Modelling suggests that in order for a behaviour to be learned, the behavior must be performed by a ‘role model’ (someone who the learner can identify with through characteristics). Shutts et al suggested that for children, the more similar characteristics (such as age and height) that the ‘role model’ and observer share, the more likely it is that a behavior is imitated.
The theory takes mediational (cognitive) processes into account including; attention - the extent to which behaviour is noticed; retention - how well the behaviour is remembered; motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour; and motivation - the willingness to perform the behaviour. If these factors are implemented, vicarious reinforcement can take place.
Bandura et al carried out an experiment involving children who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models and were then tested for imitative learning in the absence of the model.
He found that:
- Children who observed the non-aggressive model exhibited virtually no aggression toward the Bobo doll.
- About one-third of children who observed the aggressive model repeated the model’s verbal responses, like “POW” and physical responses, e.g. striking it with a mallet).
- While none of the children who had observed the non-aggressive model made verbally aggressive remarks.
The cognitive approach - AO1?
The cognitive approach examines internal mental processes (private operations of the mind), such as perception, memory and attention, and their effect on behaviour. These processes are studied indirectly by making inferences about what is occurring in the mind when a visible behaviour is performed.
Theoretical models assist in this inference by enabling a visual representation of complex processes. The working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch) is a theoretical model of shot term memory. Computer models suggest the mind is similar to a computer system. For example, the analogy of the hard disc representing long-term memory.
Cognitive processing can be affected by a person’s schemas; mental frameworks of information used to organise past experiences and interpret new situations. For example, a schema for a classroom may consist of whiteboards. Schemas are an example of top-down information-processing; they provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world by ‘filling in gaps’ using knowledge. However, they may distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors (e.g. discrimination).
A final aspect of the approach is cognitive neuroscience; the scientific study of influence of brain structures on mental processes. For example, Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production. Brain-scanning techniques (such as fMRI’s) have also been developed to study how behaviour is affected by cognitive function.
The biological approach - AO1?
The biological approach suggests that everything psychological (e.g. thoughts) is at first biological. It uses genetic information, neurochemistry and the nervous system to explain behaviour.
The biological explanation stems from Darwins theory of evolution; any genetically determining behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will be passed on to the next generation (natural selection).
Psychobiologists compare the concordance rates (the extent to which characteristics are shared) between twins. Monozygotic twins, who share 100% of each other’s genes, have higher concordance rates than dizygotic twins, who share around 50% of their genes. This suggests a genetic basis for behavioural characteristics.
A second aspect is genotype (genetic-makeup) and phenotype (how the genotype and environment interact to produce physical characteristics and behaviour. The approach suggests that much of human behaviour is due to the interaction of inherited factors and the environment.
A further aspect recognises the role of neurochemistry in determining behaviour. Imbalances in the number of neurotransmitters (chemicals between synapses) are associated with atypical behaviour. For example, too little serotonin has been associated with depression.
Finally, the approach studies hormones, produced in the endocrine glands. Hormones influence behaviour when secreted into the bloodstream. For example, oxytocin is a hormone that produces caring/nurturing behaviour and thoughts in women after birth.
The pscyhodynamic approach - AO1?
Freud’s psychodynamic approach describes the role of consciousness in influencing personality and behaviour, including our; conscious mind (thoughts and feelings that we are aware of); preconscious mind (thoughts and feelings which individuals may become aware of in dreams, or through ‘slips of the tongue’, called parapraxes); and the unconscious mind (biological drives that can contain disturbing memories that have been repressed).
Freud composed three parts to describe personality. The id is the primitive part of our personality. It is present at birth and operates unconscious drives and pleasure principles.
The ego develops around the age of two and works on the reality principle. It uses defence mechanisms (temporary threats and distortions of reality to prevent overwhelment) to work as the mediator between the id and superego.
The superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage (age 5) and works as an internalised sense of right and wrong. It represents the moral standards of the childs same-sex parent and punishes the ego through guilt for wrong-doing.
A final aspect of the psychodynamic approach are the five psychosexual stages of development in children. Each stage, apart from latency, is marked by a different conflict that must be resolved to progress to the next stage. Any unresolved conflict leads to fixation - the child is ‘stuck’ in a stage and carries behaviours associated with the stage through life. The oedipus complex contains the phallic stage, in which boys develop unconscious feelings toward their mother and hatred toward their father. Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on a male gender role and moral values.
The humanistic approach - AO1?
The humanistic approach denotes the idea that we all have free will and are self-determining. It suggests that individuals are still affected by external and internal influences, however, we are active agents that have the ability to determine our own development. Humanistic psychologists, Rogers and Maslow, reject the scientific models to establish general principles of human behaviour because we are all unique (person-centered approach).
A second assumption is the concept of self-actualisation - the idea that every person has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential. Maslow’s five hierarchy of needs represents this. All four lower levels of the hierarchy must be met before the individual can work towards self-actualisation. Not everyone will experience personal growth due to psychological barriers.
A final concept is self-congruence and conditions of worth. Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individual must have congruence with their ideal self. If too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’, the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be achieved.
Rogers developed client-centered therapy to reduce the gap between the two ‘selves’ by reducing low self-esteem, which often stem from lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood (e.g. a parent says ‘I will only love you if…”).
Comparison questions - what to write?
Similarities and differences in:
- views on development,
- nature vs nurture,
- reductionism,
- determinism,
- explanation and treatment of atypical behaviour.
5 stages in humanistic approach?
Physiological needs, Safety and security, Love and belonging, Self-esteem, Self-actualisation.
ALL REDUCTIONIST EXCEPT HUMANISTIC.
Humanistic approach - AO3?
P, H, R, UC, C.
Strength - the humanistic approach is that it has been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition. Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative; it sees all people as good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives.
Strength - supporting strength is the fact the approach is not reductionist. Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. In contrast to the other reductionist approaches, humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.
Weakness - However, a limitation of the humanistic approach is that it has limited real life application. Although Roger’s client based therapy revolutionsed counselling and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to increase motivation in the workplace, but the approach has had limited impact within psychology as a whole. This may be due to the humanistic approach lacking a sound evidence-base and the theory is often referred to as a loose set of abstract concepts.
Weakness - A further weakness of the humanistic approach is that has untestable concepts. Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools but would be problematic to assess under experimental conditions. Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigour into his work by developing the Q-sort, an objective measure of progress in therapy. Nevertheless, the approach describes itself as anti-scientific and this means its claims lack empirical evidence.
Weakness - cultural bias. Many of the ideas of the humanistic approach such as freedom and personal growth would be associated better with individualist cultures in the Western world. Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasises the needs of the group and community, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of the humanistic approach. Therefore, it is possible that this approach is less relevant in certain cultures.
