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Psychology > Research Methods - Paper 2 > Flashcards

Research Methods - Paper 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Ethical issues

A

These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data to contribute to society.
However telling them may render it meaningless as it could change behaviour.
Milgram - would not have acted the way they did if participants knew aims.

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2
Q

Confidentiality

A

A participants right to have personal information protected.

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3
Q

Deception

A

Where a participant is not told the true aims of the study eg. what it will involve and therefore cannot give truly informed consent.
Withholding information, deliberately dishonest. However can be justified if doesn’t cause any undue distress and aims are told in the debrief and right to withdraw.

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4
Q

Informed consent

A

Participants have the right to be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate.

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5
Q

Protection from harm

A

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem, or embarrassment.
Participant’s respect and dignity maintained.

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6
Q

Right to withdraw

A

Participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way and should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced.

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7
Q

Anonymity

A

A participant’s right to remain nameless.

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8
Q

Competency

A

The capacity for the researcher to deal professionally with issues that arise during the course of the research programme.

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9
Q

BPS code of ethics

A

A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.

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10
Q

Cost benefit analysis

A

Used to determine whether research proposal is ethically acceptable. Weighing pros and cons, is it worthwhile, is it harmful, what are the benefits.

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11
Q

How can you obtain informed consent?

A

Signed consent letter
Presumptive
Prior general
Retrospective

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12
Q

What is presumptive consent?

A

Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agree, then consent of the original participants is ‘presumed’.

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13
Q

What is prior - general consent?

A

Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies- including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.

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14
Q

What is retrospective consent?

A

Consent is asked in the debrief. Participants are not aware of their participation, subjects of deception.

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15
Q

What does a debrief include?

A

Participants made aware of any aims or info that wasn’t received prior to study.
Any deals with deception.
Must be told they have the right to withhold data. This is important in retrospective consent.

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16
Q

Population

A

Refers to the large group of individuals that a particular researcher may be interested in studying, for example students attending sixth form.

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17
Q

Target population

A

Particular subset of the overall population from which the sample will be taken, for example students attending sixth form in Newcastle.

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18
Q

Sample

A

Small number of people a researcher selects to take part in a research investigation. It is drawn from the target population and is presumed to be representative of that population so findings can be generalised.

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19
Q

Representative

A

Contains the same characteristics as the target population from which the sample was taken (reflective)

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20
Q

Generalisation

A

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular experiment can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of people is representative of the population.

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21
Q

What is a sampling technique?

A

Method used used to select the sample from the target population.

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22
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being studied, random generator

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23
Q

What are the strengths of random sampling?

A

Not biased
Completely random
Quick and easy

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24
Q

What are the limitations of random sampling?

A

May not be representative
Participants may not want to take part
Hard to get a list of the target population

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25
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

Every nth number of the target population is selected, list created in some sort of order (alphabetical).

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26
Q

What are the strengths of systematic sampling?

A

Not biased

Fairly representative

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27
Q

What are the limitations of systematic sampling?

A

Refusal to take part
Difficult to get list of target population
Time consuming

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28
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

 Put into certain sub groups (strata), characteristics such as income, education, lifestyle, age, gender are used as sub groups

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29
Q

What are the strengths of stratified sampling?

A

Picked randomly
Not biased
Most representative

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30
Q

What are the limitations of stratified sampling?

A

Time consuming to identify strata and target population.

The selection of the appropriate strata for a sample may be difficult.

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31
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

A

Taking a sample of people who are willing and available at the time that the study is being carried out and fit the criteria of the research.

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32
Q

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

A

Easy
Quick
Cheap

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33
Q

What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?

A

Not representative of target population.

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34
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A

Advertise in media, participants are self selected.

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35
Q

What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

A

Quick/not time consuming

Easy

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36
Q

What are the limitations of volunteer sampling?

A

Volunteer bias cannot be generalised

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37
Q

What is an experimental method?

A

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.

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38
Q

What is an aim of a study?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.

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39
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

Statement (educated guess) that is made at the start of the study about what will happen in the study.
Clearly states the relationship between variables as stated by the theory.
Should be clear and precise.

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40
Q

What is the difference between an aim and a hypothesis?

A

An aim is a general statement of the purpose of an investigation whereas a hypothesis is a precise, testable statement which states the relationship between the variables.

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41
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A

States the direction of the difference or relationship
Makes prediction of what happens
One tailed

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42
Q

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

Does not state the direction

Two tailed

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43
Q

When would a directional hypothesis be used?

A

When the findings of previous researchers suggest a particular outcome.

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44
Q

When would a non-directional hypothesis be used?

A

No previous research or findings from earlier studies

Not contradictory

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45
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

Predicts that statistically significant effect or relationship will not be found

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46
Q

What is a research hypothesis?

A

Predicts statistically significant effect of an IV on a DV (experiment) or significant relationship between variables (correlation)

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47
Q

What is a variable?

A

Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation

Used in experiments to determine if changes in one ‘thing’ result in changes to another

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48
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

Manipulated by researcher to measure effect on dependent variable

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49
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

Measured by researcher

Any effect on this should be caused by changes in the independent variable

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50
Q

What is the control condition in an experiment?

A

Provides a baseline measure of behaviour without manipulation of independent variable
Results from experimental condition are compared to this condition

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51
Q

What is the experimental condition in an experiment?

A

Involves manipulation of independent variable

Results from the control condition are compared to this condition

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52
Q

What does it mean by ‘operatenalisation of variables’ ?

A

Clearly define variables to ensure that they’re made measurable

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53
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Any variable other than the IV that MAY have an effect on the DV if not controlled
They’re ‘nuisance variables’ that don’t vary systematically with the IV - their effect is random
Ideally identified at start of study
Eg. Noise, weather, temperature, anxiety

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54
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

Any extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so that we cannot be sure of the true source of change to the DV
Eg. Introvert/ extrovert (personality)

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55
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Cue from researcher or from situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation
Please -u or screw-u effects could occur

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56
Q

What are investigator effects?

A

Any effect of researcher’s behaviour (conscious or uncenscious) on the dependent variable the research
May include anything from design of the study to the selection of and interaction with participants during research

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57
Q

What is randomisation?

A

Use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding order of conditions

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58
Q

What are single blind experiments?

A

When participants don’t know which condition they’re taking part in within an experiment

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59
Q

What is a double blind experiment?

A

When neither the participants or the investigator know which condition the participants are taking part in

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60
Q

What is counter-balancing?

A

Attempt to control for order effects in a repeated measures design
Half experience in one order ( A then B) then the other halfin the opposite order (B then A)

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61
Q

What is standardisation?

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

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62
Q

What is an experimental design?

A

Different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditons
Ways in which to allocate participants to different conditions

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63
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A

Different participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
Allocation should be made randomly

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64
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

All participants take part in an conditons of the experiment one after the other
May use counterbalancing to reduce order effects

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65
Q

What is matched pair design?

A

Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as as age
One member is then assigned to conditon A then other to condition B

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66
Q

What is randomisation in experimental designs?

A

Attempt to control participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures they have the same chance of being in one condition as any other

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67
Q

What are order effects?

A

Occurs in repeated measures design (confounding variable)

Practice ettect/boredom effect which could impact the results

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68
Q

What are the advantages of independent groups design?

A

Less time consuming
Reduced demand characteristics
Don’t experience order effects

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69
Q

What are disadvantages of independent groups design?

A

Bigger sample needed to produce same amount of data as RMD

Risk of participant variables (individual differences between participants)

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70
Q

What are advantages of repeated measures design?

A

Smaller sample

Participant variables controlled (can compare results)

71
Q

What are disadvantages of repeated measures design?

A

Increased demand characteristics
Time consuming
Increased order effects

72
Q

What are the advantages of matched pairs design?

A

Decreased participant variables
Order effects avoided
Decreased demand characteristics

73
Q

What are the disadvantages of matched pairs design?

A

Time consuming
Bigger sample size needed
Cannot find perfect pair as individual differences still occur
Expensive due to test beforehand

74
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

Takes place in controlled environment
Researcher manipulates independent variable
Records effect on dependent variable
Strict control of extraneous variables

75
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

takes place in natural setting within which researcher manipulates IV and records effect on DV

76
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

experiment where the change in IV is not brought about by researcher (but would not have happened if researcher wasn’t there)
researcher records effect on the DV

77
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

study that is almost an experiment but IV not been determined by anyone
“variables” simply exist such as being old or young
Eg. Questionnaires, authoritarian personality scale (cannot manipulate personality)

78
Q

Which type of experiment has the highest level of control over the IV?

A

laboratory

79
Q

Which type of experiment has the lowest level of control over the IV?

A

natural

80
Q

Which type of experiment has a middle level of control over the IV?

A

field

81
Q

Which type of experiment has the lowest level of ecological validity?

A

laboratory

82
Q

Which experiment has the highest level of ecological validity?

A

natural

83
Q

Which type of experiment strikes the balance between control of the IV and having ecological validity?

A

field

84
Q

What is happening to the IV in each experiment, is it manipulated or controlled, and what is the setting of the study? Is it controlled?

A
85
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment have high internal validity?

A

(Is the researcher measuring what was intended in the study)

Lab and quasi - high control over extraneous variables so able to establish cause and effect

86
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment have low internal validity?

A

(Is the researcher measuring what was intended in the study)
Field and natural - increased risk of extraneous variables due to lower levels of control, harder to establish cause and effect
Also no random allocation of groups so difficult to know if IV impacted DV or something else

87
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment have high external validity?

A

(Can the findings be generalised to other settings)
Field and natural - setting more natural, task tends to be more representative of real world, behaviour reflects how it would occur in the real world
Natural however may be very specific so harder to generalise to a wider population

88
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment have low external validity? 

A

(Can the findings be generalised to other settings)
Lab and quasi - artificial environment and unfamiliar, results cannot be easily generalised beyond setting, may not represent real life experiences - lacks mundane realism

89
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment would have ethical issues?

A

(Is there conflict between the rights of participants and goals of the researcher?)
Field - Participants often unaware they are taking part in research, cannot give informed consent and may feel privacy has been invaded

90
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment would not have ethical issues?

A

(Is there conflict between the rights of participants and goals of the researcher?)
Lab and quasi - participants know that they are taking part in research although they may not know exactly what is involved
Natural -  The events would happen anyways the researcher is just making use of them to research challenging areas

90
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which type of experiment has high reliability?

A

(Replication, how consistent was the study, can someone else repeat and get same results?)
Lab and quasi - High level of control allows replication to occur to check accuracy of the results

91
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment has not got high reliability?

A

(Replication, how consistent was the study, can someone else repeat and get same results?)
Field - Environment is less controlled and cannot be easily replicated to check the accuracy of the results
Natural - it is usually a one-off occasion making replication impossible

92
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment has higher chance of demand characteristics?

A

(Could participants guess the aim of the study, could they have changed their behaviour to please or screw with the study?)
Lab and quasi - participants know they’re being tested so they could guess the aim and change their behaviour so findings may not be valid

93
Q

Evaluating the types of experiment - which types of experiment has lower chance of demand characteristics?

A

(Could participants guess the aim of the study, could they have changed their behaviour to please or screw with the study?)
Field - participants often don’t know they’re taking part in the study so they act more naturally this increases the validity of findings
Natural - participants are responding to something that the researcher has no control over

94
Q

What are pilot studies?

A

Small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted
The aim is to check that procedures materials and measuring skills et cetera work before the large-scale version happens
allows the researcher to make changes to their study if there are any issues that occur
findings of pilot studies and terms of data are irrelevant

95
Q

Strengths of pilot studies

A

Saves time and money in the long run
Data collected will be valid
Allows a researcher a chance to practice

96
Q

Limitations of pilot studies

A

More participants required
Could be a waste of time and money if no changes are required
Could lead to study being shared

97
Q

What is an observation?

A

Non-experimental method meaning they cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship
Provide psychologist with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them
Allows them to study observable behaviour
Complex interactions between variables can be studied in a more natural way
can be used within experiments to assess the dependent variable - Zimbardo
no manipulation of variables included

98
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the settings within which it would normally occur

99
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e. one where some variables are managed

100
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent

101
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

102
Q

What is a participant observation?

A

Research a becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

103
Q

What is a nonparticipant observation?

A

Researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

104
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which type of observations have low internal validity?

A

(Is the researcher measuring what was intended in the study)
Naturalistic - extraneous variables can occur making it difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour
Overt - participants know they’re being watched and they may not act naturally
Non-participant - lose valuable insight into study as too far removed from the group

105
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which type of observations have high internal validity?

A

(Is the researcher measuring what was intended in the study)
Controlled - extraneous variables less of a factor, patterns of behaviour can be judged more easily
Covert - don’t know they’re being watched so may act more naturally
Participant - increased insight into what’s going on and why

106
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which type of observation has high external validity? 

A

(Can the findings be generalised to other settings)

Naturalistic - behaviour studied and environment it will usually occur so can be generalised to every day life

107
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which type of observation has low external validity?

A

(Can the findings be generalised to other settings)

Controlled - behaviour studied in artificial environment so cannot easily be applied to real life settings

108
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which type of observation has high levels of ethical issues? 

A

Covert - don’t know they’re being watched and their behaviour recorded

109
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which type of observation has low levels of ethical issues?

A

Overt - know they’re being watched and having their behaviour recorded

110
Q

Evaluating the types of observation -  which observation has high reliability (replication)?

A

Controlled - control over situation makes replication easier

111
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which observation has low reliability (replication)?

A

Naturalistic - lack of control over research situation makes replication difficult

112
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which observation has low demand characteristics?

A

Naturalistic - less likely to guess aim as taking place in a natural environment so less cues
Corvette - don’t know they are being studied, not aware that there is an aim 

113
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which observation has high demand characteristics?

A

Controlled - more likely to guess as situation is artificial with more cues
Overt - know they’re being studied so could alter behaviour based on cues or wanting to give a certain impression

114
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which observation has high objectivity? (Are the researchers being opinion free?)

A

Non-participant - not becoming part of the group so are able to remain opinion free

115
Q

Evaluating the types of observation - which observation has high objectivity? (Are the researchers being opinion free?)

A

Participant - may lose objectivity because they become so involved in being part of the group that they forget about their role as a researcher

116
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

A type of observation where every instance of a behaviour is recorded and as much detail as possible.
This is useful if the behaviours researchers are interested in do not occur very often. 

117
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Type of observation where the researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as a sampling technique and behavioural categories

118
Q

What are target behaviours?

A

Behaviours which are the main focus of an investigation

119
Q

What are behavioural categories/checklists?

A

Checklist of behaviour (s) to be observed in individual components
Each component should bean observable behaviour which is measurable

120
Q

What is continuous recording?

A

Making notes of everything without pause

121
Q

What is event sampling?

A

When the researcher records number of times a particular behaviour or event occurs in a target individual or group

122
Q

What is time sampling?

A

When the researcher records behaviour within a pre-determined time frame

123
Q

What is inter-observer reliability?

A

Extent to which there’s agreement between 2 or more observers involved in the observation of a behaviour
Measured by correlating observations of 2 or more observers
]if correlation between 2 observers is +0.8, data is said to have high inter-observer reliability

124
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers

125
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Data that is expressed in words and non- numerical form

126
Q

What is observer bias?

A

When observer’s expectations affect what they see or hear

This reduces the validity of the observation

127
Q

What is a questionnaire?

A

A questionnaire is a type of self report technique
It is a set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and/or experiences
It may be used as part of an experiment to assess the DV

128
Q

What is a self report technique?

A

A method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
The two types are questionnaires and interviews

129
Q

What is an open question?

A

A question where there is no fixed choice of response, respondents can answer in any way that they wish
Tend to produce qualitative data that is rich in depth and detail however may be difficult to analyse

130
Q

What is a closed question?

A

A question where there is a fixed set of responses that is determined by the person who sets the questions
Could be yes or no or could be a rating scale
Produce numerical data (quantitative), usually easy to analyse but lacks depth and detail 

131
Q

What are the three main types of rating scales associated with closed questions?

A

Likert - strongly agree to strongly disagree
Rating - value to identify feelings on a topic, very entertaining (1) not at all entertaining (5)
Fixed choice - possible options to pick from which apply to them

132
Q

What is jargon?

A

Technical terms that are only familiar to those within a specialised field or area
Such words may confuse a person the best questions are simple and easily understood

133
Q

What is a leading question?

A

It guides the respondents towards a particular answer

May not be their honest answer 

134
Q

What is emotive language?

A

When the author’s attitude towards a topic is made obvious by the way a question is phrased
Emotive words should be replaced with more neutral alternatives

135
Q

What is a double barrelled question?

A

Contains two questions in one, the issue being that respondents may agree with one half the question and not the other half
Eg - I am not unhappy in my job (agree/disagree)
Questions that include double negatives can be difficult for respondents to understand and should be asked in more straightforward ways

136
Q

Strengths of questionnaires

A

Cost effective (gather large amounts of data quickly as can be distributed to large numbers of people)
Can be completed without researcher being present (postal, reduces effort involved)
Data produced is usually straightforward to analyse (when mainly fixed choice closed questions used, can make comparisons between groups easily)

137
Q

Limitations of questionnaires

A 
May not always be truthful (social desirability bias to make themselves look good)
Response bias (people reply in similar ways as they fail to read the questions properly and complete it too fast) 
Acquiescence bias (agree with items regardless of the content of questions)
138
Q

What is an interview?

A

A live encounter where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts and/or experiences
Questions may be pre-set (structured) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured)
Should be conducted in a quiet room away from other people, increases likelihood the interviewee will be open
Interviewees should berenunded that their answers will be kept confidential

139
Q

What is a structured interview?

A

An interview where the questions are decided in advance - they’re pre determined
Questionnaire delivered by a person

140
Q

What is an unstructured interview?

A

An interview that starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions and let’s interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions
The interaction is free-flowing. 
Interviewee encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers as prompted by the interviewer

141
Q

What is a semi-structured interview?

A

Combines some pre-determined questions and some questions developed in response to answers given
Allows the interviewer to ask follow-up questions when they feel it is appropriate

142
Q

What is an interview schedule?

A

Set of pre-set questions for an interviewer to use

Should be standardised

143
Q

What is interviewer bias?

A

Maybe the way they respond to participants, topic areas they’re interested in etc.
It effects the results obtained from the interview

144
Q

What is a group interview?

A

Where more than one participant is interviewed at one time

145
Q

What are the 3 common errors that should be avoided where possible when designing an interview?

A

Overuse of jargon
Emotive language and leading questions
Double barrelled questions

146
Q

Structured interview evaluation (reliability, interviewer bias, validity, data analysis, social desirability bias)

A

Reliable- set interview schedule so standardised
Low interviewer bias- following standardised instructions and questions so less impact of interviewer bias
Reduced validity-yes will have what they set out to measure but don’t get opportunity to ask additional questions
Straightforward data analysis- should only have info they’re interested in, easy to draw firm conclusions
Higher risk of social desirability bias- interviewees may lie, interviewer doesn’t get chance to ask follow up questions to establish whether they’re providing truthful info or not

147
Q

Semi-structured interview evaluation (reliability, interviewer bias, validity, data analysis, social desirability bias)

A

Mixed reliability - some questions follow an interview schedule, some don’t
Mixed levels of interviewer bias-following standardised instructions and questions so less impact of interviewer bias, however asking follow up questions they’re interested in may impact answers
Should be as valid as possible- they have all the info they need along with any additional info they were interested in
Mixed data analysis- have info from structured however info from unstructured may be harder to analyse, conclusions drawn may not be as firm
Lower social desirability bias- risk of interviewees lying however, good/experienced researcher knows how to build good rapport with interviewee so more able to gain info through their questions to tell whether they’re lying

148
Q

Unstructured interview evaluation (reliability, interviewer bias, validity, data analysis, social desirability bias)

A

Not reliable - no set interview schedule so not standardised
High levels of interviewer bias- not following standardised instructions or interview schedule so impact on answers increased
Should be as valid as possible- got all the info they need alongside extra info they were interested in
Complicated data analysis- may have to go through irrelevant info to find what they want, difficult to draw firm conclusions
Lower social desirability bias- risk of interviewees lying however, good/experienced researcher knows how to build good rapport with interviewee so more able to gain info through their questions to tell whether they’re lying

149
Q

What is a case study?

A

In-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event
Usually of unusual individuals or events
Provide insight into areas psychologists can’t study through manipulation due to ethical issues
Researchers will use interviews, observations, questionnaires to collate info (qualitative data)
Tend to be longitudinal (take place over a long period of time)
Examples, HM, little Albert

150
Q

Case studies evaluation - rich data

A

Strength
Rich and detailed insights into unusual and atypical forms of behaviour
HM revealed importance of hippocampus in memory
Allows more understanding of human behaviour that couldn’t be investigated using traditional research methods due to ethical issues

151
Q

Case studies evaluation-future research

A

Strength
May generate hypotheses for future study
KF showed there’s different types of long term memory
Led to development of WMM to try explain KF’s behaviour which couldn’t be explained by MSM

152
Q

Case studies evaluation- generalisation

A

Limitation
Tend to only involve single individual or small group of people
HM, KF became case studies regarding memory
Just because KF seemed to have multiple short term memories and HM’s hippocampus was involved in memory did not necessarily mean that this would be the case for everyone

153
Q

Case studies evaluation - researcher bias

A

Limitation
Researchers became very involved in case studies which can reduce validity
Usually happen over a long period of time and mean they get to know the individual(s), family and friends well
May be subjective selection and interpretation of info meaning info reported isn’t truthful

154
Q

Case studies evaluation - replication

A

Limitation
Cannot be replicated as they involve analysis of unusual individuals or events
Clive Wearing experienced amnesia and couldn’t form new memories after contracting encephalitis
Ethically, cannot induce same illness on people to see if they too experience the same thing which reduces reliability of findings

155
Q

What is content analysis?

A

Content analysis is a technique for analysing qualitative data of various kinds. Data can be placed into categories and counted (quantitative) or can be analysed in themes (qualitative).
Pre-determined categories so they know what they’re looking for

156
Q

What is thematic analysis?

A

Thematic analysis is a qualitative data analysis method that involves reading through a data set (such as transcripts from in depth interviews or focus groups), and identifying patterns in meaning across the data to derive themes.
Involves identifying ideas or themes within the date (read then see what themes emerge)

157
Q

What is coding in content analysis?

A

Process of placing qualitative or quantitative data into categories
Coding of data involves reading the data and identifying each instance of the chosen categories which may be words, sentenced, phrases etc. A tally may be created for how many times each category is used in the data.

158
Q

What is the role of peer review?

A

Assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

159
Q

What are the three main aims of peer review?

A

1- TO ALLOCATE RESEARCH FUNDING - gov will only fund worthwhile projects
2- VALIDATE QUALITY AND RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH - prevents irrelevant findings, deliberate fraud, unwarranted claims
3- SUGGEST AMENDMENTS OR IMPROVEMENTS - ensure research is taken seriously, researchers/authors less objective about their own work

160
Q

Strength of peer review - establish validity

A

Can establish validly and accuracy of research
Prevents dissemination and acceptance of incorrect work - Cyril Burt
Helps ensure published work is taken seriously

161
Q

Strength into limitation of peer review - people are unknown

A

Peer completing review is usually anonymous
Produces more honest assessment of work
However some may use anonymity as way of criticising rival researchers
More likely as most researchers are in direct competition for limited funding

162
Q

Limitation of peer review - publication bias

A

Often publication bias in journals
Editors want to publish significant findings to increase credibility and circulation of publication
More likely to publish positive results
Research that doesn’t meet certain criterion is ignored/disregarded
False impression created of current state of psychology

163
Q

Limitation of peer review - maintaining status quo

A

Process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories
Reviewers who are established, more critical of contracting views, more favourable to one that matches it
Findings that fit with current opinion are more likely to to be passed than new research that challenges status quo
Peer review may slow down the rate of change within psychology

164
Q

Psychology and the economy - social change

A

Social change has been used to reduce drink driving, obesity, stereotyping and smoking
(Occurs when society or section of society adapts to a new belief or way of behaving which then becomes widely accepted as norm)

165
Q

How could social change impact the economy?

A

Reduces amount of money NHS have to spend on illnesses caused by cancer and drink driving etc

166
Q

Psychology and the economy - improving memory

A

Cognitive interview is used to improve amount of accurate info that is collected from eyewitnesses
Greatly improved crime detection

167
Q

How would improving memory impact the economy?

A

People not in prison for crimes they haven’t committed
Saves tax payers money
Don’t need to pay them compensation

168
Q

Psychology and the economy - attachment

A

Bowlby’s importance of attachment from birth until two opened world to importance to emotional care at childhood
Caused changes in maternity and paternity leave
Also research to say not just the mother that’s important but also the father

169
Q

How could attachment impact the economy?

A

Changes to maternity and paternity pay have cost the government more money
Means higher wage earners can go back to work and pay taxes - mother doesn’t have to stay off work

170
Q

Psychology and the economy - psychopathology, mental health

A

Direct costs of mental health around £22.5b per year - without indirect costs (impact on criminal justice, unemployment)
Research suggests drug therapies have more economic gain than psychological therapies, similar benefits but more expensive

171
Q

How does mental health impact the economy?

A

Drugs are cheaper so save money

Talking therapies require a trained therapist so creates jobs

172
Q

Psychology and the economy - biopsychology

A

Neuroscience offers possibility to revolutionise our understanding of human brain
Looks as though artificial intelligence in future will be able to think exactly like humans
(Asking/answering questions on phone, recognising faces at airports)

173
Q

How could biopsychology impact the economy?

A

Able to cut down costs of wages - voice recognition (receptionists)
Saves wages at airports as computers can do work
May create unemployment so less money to spend in the economy

Psychology (10 decks)

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