Research Methods Key Words Flashcards
Experimental method
Involves the manipulation of independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study
Hypothesis
A clear, precise testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the difference or relationship between the variables
Non-directional hypothesis
Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship between the variables
Variables
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments yo determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another
Independent variable
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV
Operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Theory
A collection of general principles used to explain specific observations and facts
Extraneous variable
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it is not controlled. EV’s are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
Confounding variables
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV.
Demand characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome. This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and the interaction with, participants during the research process
Randomisation
The use of chance in order to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
Participant reactivity
The tendency for participants to react to cues from the researcher or the research environment
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half of the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order
Experimental design
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
Independent groups design
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B
Random allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
Participant variables
Characteristics of individual participants (such as age and intelligence) that might influence the outcome of a study
Order effects
In a repeated measures design, a confounding variable arising from the order which conditions are presented, e.g. practice effect or boredom effect
Laboratory (Lab) experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV
Quasi-experiment
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young
Population
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
Sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population
Sampling techniques
The method used to select people from the population
Bias
In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected. For instance, there may be too many younger people or too many people of one ethnic origin in a sample. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population
Random sample
All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
Stratified sample
The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups within the target or wider population
Opportunity sample
Where researchers select anyone who happens to be willing and available
Volunteer sample
Participants selecting themselves to be part of the research
Ethical issues
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data
BPS code of ethics
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society that instructs psychologists in the UK about what is an is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around 4 major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
Informed consent
Making participants aware of the aims of research, the procedures, their rights (including the right to withdraw)
Deception
Deliberately withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
Protection from harm
Ensuring the participants aren’t placed at any more risk than they would in their daily lives
Privacy
TPersonal infroamtion that participants can control about theimselves
Confidentiality
The right to have any personal data protected if privacy is invaded
Debriefing
Where participants are made aware of the true aims of an investigation after the study
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc, work and to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary
Single-blind procedure
When participants are not informed about the aim of research at the beginning of the study
Double-bind procedure
Where neither the participants nor the researcher is aware of the aim of the study
Naturalistic observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment i.e. one where some variables are managed
Covert observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Over observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Non-participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Objectivity
Being uninfluenced be personal opinions or past experiences, being free of bias.
Observation
A research study where only observational techniques are used
Observational design
An overall plan for conducting observational research
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable
Even sampling
A target behaviour or even is first established then the researcher records this even every time it occurs
Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame
Structured observation
The researcher uses a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods to quantify their observation
Unstructured observation
The researcher may just want to write down everything they see
Self-report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a give topic
Questionnaire
A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and experiences
Interview
A ‘live’ encounter where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess the interviewee’s thoughts and experiences. The questions may be pre-set or may develop as the interview goes along
Open questions
Questions that don’t have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer as they wish
Closed questions
Questions that offer a fixed number of responses i.e. ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Structured interviews
Made up of pre-determined questions asked in a fixed order
Unstructured interviews
Interaction is free-flowing and there are no set questions
Semi-structured interviews
A list of questions are available but follow-up questions may also occur when appropriate
Social desirability bias
A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light
Response bias
A tendency for interviewees to respond in the same way to all questions, regardless of content.
Acquiescence bias
Tendency for a person to response to any questionnaire/interview item with agreement regardless of the actual content
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables
Co-variables
The variables investigated within a correlation. Their no IV and DV as correlations investigate the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause and effect relationship
Positive correlation
As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise a positively correlated
Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the following two co-variables: number of people in a room and amount of personal space are negatively correlated
Zero correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru
Intervening variables
A variable that comes between 2 other variables and can be used to explain their relationship
Third variable problem
An unintentional their variable influences 2 separate variables that are being measured
Qualitative data
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical
Quantitative data
Data that can be counted and is usually given as numbers
Primary data
Information that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purposes of research project.
Secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project
Meta-analysis
‘Research about research’ - combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view.
Descriptive statistics
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data
Measures of central tendency
The general term for any measure of the average values in a set of data
Mean
Average calculated by adding up the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values there are
Median
The central values in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest
Mode
The most frequently occurring value in a set of data
Measures of dispersion
The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores
Range
Subtracting the lowest score from the highest and adding 1 as a mathematical correction
Standard deviation
It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean
Scattergram
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis
Bar chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars
Normal distribution
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak
Skewed distribution
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end
Positive skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left
Negative skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right
Statistical testing
A way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected.
Sign test
A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items (i.e. the same participant tested twice)
Peer review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality
Economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services
Research methods
The process by which information or data is collected usually for the purpose of testing a hypothesis and a theory
Correlation Co-efficient
A number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables
Case studies
An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event
Content analysis
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce i.e. in texts, emails, TV, film and other media
Coding
The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studiedis analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories
Thematic analysis
An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded
Case history
A record of a person’s previous experiences or behaviours
Reflexive
A research thinks about the factors that affect the behaviour of the researcher and the participants and how this affects the data collected
Longitudinal study
Research conducted over a long period of time
Test-retest reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. This is measured by correlating the observations of 2 or more observers.
Face reliability
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure
Concurrent validity
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
Ecological validity
The extent to which findings from a researcher study can be generalised to other settings and situations (external validity)
Temporal validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras (external validity)
Investigator effects
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome. This may include the research design to the selection of participants
Statistical tests
Tests used to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists and whether the null hypothesis should be accepted or rejected
Levels of measurements
Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement, such as nominal, ordinal and interval data
Chi-Squared
A test for an association between two variables or condition. Data should be nominal level using an unrelated design
Mann-Whitney
A test for a significant difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using an unrelated design
Wilcoxon
A test for a significant difference between 2 sets of scores. Data should be ordinal level using a related design
Spearman’s rho
A test for correlation when data is at ordinal level
Pearson’s r
A parametric test for correlation when data is at interval level
Related t test
A parametric test for difference between 2 sets of scores. Data must be interval with a related design
Unrelated t test
A parametric test between 2 sets of scores. Data must be interval with an unrelated design
Probability
A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty
Significance
A statistial term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A ‘significant’ result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis
Critical value
When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis
Type 1 error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a false positive)
Type 2 error
The failure to reject a false null hypothesis (a false negative)
Degree of freedom
The number of values in the final calculation of statistic that are free to vary
