Cognition and Development AO1 and AO3 Flashcards
What is the difference between Piaget’s theory and Vygotsky’s theory?
Vygotsky suggested that cognitive development is a social process and he identified the importance of experts.
How does Vygotsky explain the cultural differences in cognitive abilities?
If a child is said to learn from the individuals around them, it makes sense that they will acquire the ‘tools’ important for their environment
What is the role of the ZPD in Vygotsky’s theory?
- The ZPD is the gap between what the child can understand on their own and what they may understand withh help from an expert
- Expert assistance can help children to cross the ZPD
- He also believed that high mental functions could only be acquired through interaction with others
What is the role of Scaffolding in Vygotsky’s theory?
The kinds of help given to a child to help them cross the ZPD
What are the 5 aspects of Scaffolding?
- Recruitment
- Reduction of degrees of freedom
- Direction maintenance
- Making critical features
- Demonstration
Who identified the 5 aspects of Scaffolding?
Wood, Burner and Ross (1976)
Outline the support for the ZPD (AO3)
Roazzi and Bryant gave 4-5 year olds a task to estimate the number of sweets in a box. On group worked alone while another worked with an older child. The children who received support mastered the task better
Outline the support for Scaffolding (AO3)
Corner and Cross (2003) followed up 45 children in a longitudinal study, who were solving tasks with the help of their mothers at 16, 26, 44 and 54 months. It was observed that over time mothers were less direct and gave more hints. Also, the mothers only offered help when it was needed rather than constantly
Outline the applications Vygotsky’s theory had in education (AO3)
- Peer tutoring and individual adult assistance from teaching assistants has been used to scaffold children through their ZPD
- Van Keer and Verhaeghe (2005) found that 7 year olds who were tutored by 10 year old progressed further in reading than children who were tutored.
Outline the role of individual differences in Vygotsky’s theory (AO3)
- Some children may learn best during social interactions whereas other children may learn better when working alone.
- Also, personality may have an effect on information processing
Evaluate Vygotsky’s theory in terms of individual learning of children even when in a group (AO3)
Christine Howe found that what children learn is considerably different between individuals even when in a group which suggests that children may not always pick up what we expect from interactions
Between what ages does the sensorimotor stage occur?
Between 0 and 2 years old
Outline the sensorimotor stage (0 - 2 years)
- A baby’s early focus is on physical sensations and developing physical co-ordination
- By 8 months they understand object permanence as they know that objects still exist even after they’re out of sight
Outline Piaget’s observation into object permanence
- He observed babies looking at an object when it was removed from sight throughout the first year
- He found that before 8 months the children shifted their attention from the object showing a loss of interest
- From 8 months on, the children continued to look for the object showing that they knew it still existed
Between what ages does the pre-operational stage occur?
2 - 7 years old
How did Piaget test conservation?
- Piaget placed 2 identical rows of counters and the children could understand that that the rows had the same amount.
- When one row was pushed closer together, the pre-operational children usually thought there were fewer proving they didn’t understand conservation
How did Inhelder test Egocentricism?
In 1956 she used the 3 mountains task, where a model was shown to the children and they had to state what a doll could see from different angles. Children in the pre-operational stage couldn’t describe what the doll could see suggesting they were egocentric
How did Piaget and Inhelder test class inclusion?
They showed 7-8 year olds a picture of 5 dogs and 2 cats and asked if there were more dogs or animals. In the pre-operational stage the children usually thought there were more dogs suggesting that they don’t see dogs as a part of the animal class
Between what age does the concrete operational stage occur?
7-11 years old
What are the skills concrete operational children can do?
Conservation, egocentrism and class inclusion
What are the skills concrete operational children can’t do?
Imagining and understanding abstract ideas
What skills are formal operational children able to do?
Focus on the form of an argument rather than the content
What age does the formal operational stage occur in children?
11+
How is formal reasoning tested?
Syllogisms with false content is told to the children
How did Piaget over and underestimate the abilities of children? (AO3)
He underestimated the ability of younger children as modern studies show that children can develop a good understanding of class inclusion and conservation with adult help. Studies have also found that familiar contexts prove pre-operational children to be less egocentric
Evaluate Piaget’s conservation task (AO3)
The children may have thought that Piaget wanted them to say that the counters were different which is why they said so.
McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974) used a ‘naughty teddy’ who moved the counters together and 62% of the children said the counters were the same as before showing they could conserve.
Evaluate Piaget’s class includion task based on findings from Siegler and Sventina (2006)
They tested 100 5 year olds who undertook 3 class inclusion tasks with an explanation after each task such as ‘there must be more animals than dogs because dogs are also animals. The children had a better understanding of class inclusion which contradicts Piaget
Evaluate Piaget’s egocentrism findings using Hughes (1975) task (AO3)
Hughes (1975) used a model using three dolls, a boy and a police officer to test egocentrism in children. 90% of the time children under 4 could place the boy where he wouldn’t be seen by the police officer.
This suggested that children could decentre
Evaluate Piaget’s domain-general approach to development (AO3)
He believed that intellectual development is a single process but research with children with ASD has found that egocentrism, language and reasoning develop separately. For example, children with Asperger’s Syndrome are egocentric but develop normal language skills but other children on the spectrum have problems with language and are egocentric
Outline the role of schemas in Piaget’s cognitive development theory (AO1)
Schemas are packages of knowledge developed from experience.
Children are born with a small amount of schemas but as they grow they have to construct new schemas including the ‘me-schema’ (knowledge about themselves)
What is the motivation to learn according to Paiget? (AO1)
We are motivated to learn when our existing schemas don’t allow us to make sense of something new.
This causes dis-equilibrium and we have to explore to reach equilibruim
How does learning take place according to Piaget? (AO1)
Assimilation is where we add new information to our existing schemas i.e understanding that there are different breeds of dogs
Accommodation is where we form new schemas for dramatically new information i.e. a new schema for an animal with four legs
Outline the applications in education Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has had? (AO3)
Piaget’s theory that children learn by exploring their environment has applications in education.
Children now engage in tasks that allow them to construct their own understanding of the curriculum.
Evaluate Piaget as he underplayed the importance of people in learning (AO3)
Piaget didn’t believe that children learn best in their own but he didn’t focus on that in his theory. But, other theories of cognitive development, Vygotsky’s, outline the importance of other people in learning.
Evaluate Piaget as he may have overplayed the importance of equilibration in learning (AO3)
Children vary greatly in their intellectual curiosity so not all children learn because they want to. His sample were middle-class nursery children who may have more of an interest than other children
Evaluate Piaget as he may have underplayed the importance of language in learning (AO3)
Piaget didn’t focus on language in his theory and he saw it as developing with other skills. However, other theorists have placed importance on language. For instance, children may be unable to express themselves well without langauge
How does Christine Howe’s research support Piaget’s theory? (AO3)
Howe put children between 9 and 12 in groups of 4 to discuss a topic. She found that although they all worked together, they didn’t have the same conclusion which supports Piaget as he stated that children learn by forming their own mental represeantations
How is Billargeon’s theory similar to Piaget?
Both theorists belive children have a basic understanding of the physical world from birth
What is another explanation for why children may have lost interest in object permanence studies?
The children may not have the motor skills to look for the object or they cannot stop themselves from being distracted
Outline Violation of Experiment research (Billargeon)
Billargeon and Graber (1987) showed 24 infants a tall and short rabbit pass behind a screen.
In the possible condition the short rabbit cannot be seen in the window but the tall one can
In the impossible condition neither rabbits cannot be seen in the window
What were the findings from VOE research?
Infants looked at the impossible condition for an average of 33 seconds but the possible condition for only 25 seconds.
This suggests that they expected the tall rabbit to appear at the window
Outline Billargeon’s theory of infant physical reasoning
In 2012 she proposed that humans are born with a Physical Reasoning System - a basic understanding of the physical world.
Children are attentive to the impossible situation because their PRS makes them predisposed to attend to new events so they develop their understanding of the world
How does Billargeon’s theory better than Piaget’s? (AO3)
Billargeon used a better test to investigate infant understanding. This is because the children in Piaget’s research may have shifted their attention because they lost interest. VOE research may have better validity losing interest doesn’t explain why infants looked at the impossible condition for longer
Outline why it is hard to judge what an infant understands in Billargeon’s theory (AO3)
We don’t know if children actually look at the impossible events for longer than possible events.
Also, just because infants look at the conditions for different amounts of time doesn’t mean that they understand object permanence (they may just find them different)
What is a strength of the Billargeon’s PRS in terms of universitality? (AO3)
The PRS explains why physical understanding is universal as the PRS is said to be innate so there shouldn’t be cultural differences between out understanding of the physical world
Evaluate why behavioural response doesn’t mean understanding in Billargeon’s research (AO3)
Even if babies look at the impossible scene for longer because they know it is impossible, this is different to the unconscious understanding we use to reason about the world
What is a strength of Billargeon’s PRS in terms of consistency? (AO3)
Research has shown that infants can judge distance from an early age which suggests that distance perception is an innate system that becomes sophisticated with age
Outline Selman’s domain specific approach to social cognition
Selman proposed that social perspective taking was a separate process to physical perspective taking
Outline Selman’s perspective taking research (AO1)
In 1971 Selman told children scenarios that tested their level of perspective taking. One included Holly who had to choose between upsetting a parent or rescuing her friend’s kitten. He had a sample of 60 4, 5 and 6 year olds (30 boys, 30 girls)
What did Selman find out from his research?
The level of perspective taking correlated with age
Outline stage 0 of Selman’s role taking stages
Socially egocentric - Children (3-6 years) cannot distinguish between their emotions and that of others
Outline stage 1 of Selman’s role taking stages
Social informational role taking - Children (6-8 years) can tell the difference between emotions but can only focus on one at a time
Outline stage 2 of Selman’s role taking stages
Self reflective role taking - Children (8-10 years) can put themselves in the position of others but they can only focus on one at a time
Outline stage 3 of Selman’s role taking stages
Mutual role taking - Children (10 - 12 years) can focus on two perspectives at once
Outline stage 4 of Selman’s role taking stages
Social and conventional system role taking - Children (12+) know that understanding the perspectives of others is not enough for people to reach an agreement
Which researchers were involved in the later developments to Selman’s research and when?
Schultz, Selman and La Russo (2003)
Outline interpersonal understanding as one of the later developments of Selman’s research
If we can take different roles then we can understand social situations
Outline interpersonal negotiation strategies as a later developments of Selman’s research
We assert our positions in a social situation and develop skills on how to respond to them
Outline awareness of personal meanings of relationships as a later development of Selman’s research
The ability to reflect on social behaviour in context (life history and relationships)
Evaluate Selman’s theory with evidence that perspective taking gets better with age (AO3)
Selman found a significant positive correlation between age and role taking abilities but longitudinal studies also found that perspective taking develops with age which is a strength
Evaluate Selman’s theory as there is mixed evidence for the importance of perspective taking (AO3)
In an observation of child-parent interactions Buijzen and Valkenburg (2008) found a negative correlation between age and perspective taking which suggests it is important in developing prosocial behaviour. But Gasser and Keller (2009) found that bullies had perspective taking so it may not be important in socially desirable behaviour
Outline how Selman’s theory has had applications in understanding atypical development (AO3)
Research has shown that children on the autistic spectrum have problems with perspective taking as they did worse on Selman’s scenarios which is a strength of the theory
How is Selman’s theory overly cognitive? (AO3)
Selman didn’t take internal factors (empathy) and external factors (family climate) into account which is a limitation as perspective taking is a complex skill
What is a strength of Selman’s methods? (AO3)
Selman’s methods allowed further research into cultural differences in perspective taking. For instance, Chinese adults did better at perspective taking tasks than Americans did which is a problem as Selman didn’t take culture into account when investigating perspective taking.
Name three ways ToM can be tested
Intentional reasoning, false belief tasks and the Eyes Task
How did Meltzoff test intentional reasoning in toddlers?
In 1988 he got children of 18 months to observe adults place beads in a jar. In the experimental condition the adult seemed to struggle with this but in the control condition they did well.
What did Meltzoff find from the intentional resoning research
In both conditions the toddlers placed the beads in the jar successfully which suggests that they were imitating the adults so even toddlers have ToM
What are false belief tasks?
Tasks that test whether children can understand that people can believe something that is not true
Wimmer and Perner (1983) told children different scenarios and asked them questions afterwards
For example, where would Maxi look for is chocolate if he didn’t know his mum moved it
Outline the Sally-Anne task
A story about 2 dolls Sally and Anne. Sally had a marble in her basket but Anne moves it into her box when she isn’t looking. The children are asked questions about where Sally will look for her marble when she come back
How was the Sally-Anne task used and what was found?
Baron-Cohen et al (1985) told the story to 20 ASD children and 14 children with Downs Syndrome as a control
85% of the control could correctly identified where Sally would look but only 20% of the ASD children could do this
This suggests that ToM deficit may explain ASD
How did Baron-Cohen test ToM in older children and adults?
Using the Eyes Task
What was found using the Eyes Task
It was found that adults on the Autism Spectrum struggled with the Eyes task which supports the idea that ToM deficits might cause
What is a strength of ToM research? (AO3)
It gives a partial explanation for ASD as it is agreed that people on the autistic spectrum have more difficulty with ToM research than others
How do false belief tasks have low validity? (AO3)
Bloom and German (2000) suggest that they require other cognitive abilities such as memory, which may make it difficult for children to answer the questions. Also children who do not do well on the tasks still enjoy pretend play which requires ToM
Can we distinguish between ToM and perspective taking? (AO3)
No, ToM research may actually be measuring perspective taking. For example understanding where Sally wil look may demonstrate perspective taking skills rather than ToM
Is there a clear understanding of the development of ToM? (AO3)
No, there are number of theories such as Perner et al (2002) who believe that it develops with all cognitive abilities but other believe that it develops through early interactions with adults
Evaluate the Eyes Task (AO3)
It may lack validity as looking at a pair of static eyes is different to real life where other additional information allows us to have a better understanding of how others are feeling
How was the mirror neuron system discovered?
Rizzolatti et al (2002) were studying electrical activity in a monkey’s motor cortex and one of the researchers reached for his lunch. The monkey’s motor cortex became activated in the same way it would if it was the monkey reaching for the food
How is the mirror neuron system linked to intention?
Gallese and Goldman (1998) suggested that mirror neurons respond to observed actions and intentions behind behaviour.
How is the mirror neuron system linked to perspective taking?
Mirror neurons fire in response to each other’s actions so this may give is a neural explanation for understanding the perspectives and emotional states of others so we could interpret what others are feeling
How is the mirror neuron system linked to human evolution?
Ramachandran (2011) suggested that without mirror neurons we couldn’t live in large groups with the complex rules that characterise human culture
How is the mirror neuron system linked to autistic spectrum disorder?
Ramachandran and Oberman (2006) proposed that children with ASD have neurological deficits including dysfunctional mirror neuron system.
Children with ASD mimic adult behaviour less than others.
Problems with the mirror neuron system lead to difficulties in social communication as children fail to read the intention and emotion in other children
What is the evidence for the role of mirror neuron system? (AO3)
Haker et al (2012) demonstrate that an area of the brain rich in mirror neurons is involved in contagious yawing. FMRIs were used to assess brain activity in participants who were stimulated to yawn by showing them films of others yawning. When participants yawned Brodmann’s area (frontal lobe) showed high activity as it is rich in mirror neurons
How is there mixed evidence for abnormal mirror neuron function in ASD? (AO3)
Hadjikhani (2007) reviewed evidence for deficit in mirror neuron function i.e. brain scans have shown a smaller average thickness for the pars opercularis of the people on the autistic spectrum.
And scans have shown lower activity in the brain areas associated with mirror neurons in ASD patients but not all findings have been replicated consistently so there isn’t reliable direct evidence
What is the difficult in studying mirror neuron systems? (AO3)
Brain scans don’t allow us to measure activity in individual brain cells. This is a weakness of the mirror neuron research as high activity in a part of the brain doesn’t mean high activity in specific neurons
What are the questions over the existence of mirror neurons? (AO3)
Hickok (2009) proposed that we cannot identify individual mirror neurons and their difference to other neurons but other researchers believe there are mirror neurons
What are the questions over the role of mirror neurons? (AO3)
Hickok also proposed that mirror neuron activity may have more to do with using others’ behaviour to plan ours rather than understanding the cognition behind their behaviours
Outline the aim of Iacoboni’s research
Iacoboni (2005) aimed to demonstrate what mirror neurons encode and how they are used in social cognition
Outline the procedures of Iacoboni’s research
23 participants were shown three different different types of movie clips related t o ‘tea party’ and fRMI was used to record the activity of their mirror neurons. The clips were context, action and intention.
Outline the findings of Iacoboni’s research
The highest level of mirror neuron activity was found in the inferior frontal cortex was found when participants were shown the intention clip
What conclusions were made from Iacoboni’s research?
Mirror neurons in the frontal cortex are concerned with understanding why a person is behaving in a certain way.
Evaluate the use of lab studies in Iacoboni’s research
Lab studies allowed for precise control of variables wich meant that a relationship was established between the variables
Evaluate the use of fMRIs in Iacoboni’s research
fMRIs highlight areas in the brain which are rich in oxygen and t is a scientific and valid method of measurement
Evaluate the applications that can be made from Iacoboni’s research
Mirror neurons allow humans to learn quicker through imitation and perspective taking so they don’t need to learn through many generations
