Approaches Key Words Flashcards
Psychology
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context
Science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws
Introspection
A first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of through, images and sensations
Cartesian dualism
The distinction made between the body and mind, first systematically discussed by the philosopher Descartes
Empiricism
A method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing
Evolutionary theory
An account for the changes in species over millions of years; characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are naturally selected
Adaptive
Any physical or psychological characteristic that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction, and is thus likely to be naturally selected. Such characteristics are passed on to future generations
Experimental philosophy
A field of psychology that uses empirical data as distinct from rational argument
Psychoanalysis
A form of psychotherapy, originally developed by Freud, that is intended to help patient become aware of long repressed feelings and issues by using techniques such as free association and dream analysis
Standardised instructions
A set of instructions that are the same for all participants so as to avoid investigator effects caused by different instructions
Structuralism
Any theory that aims to study the relationship among phenomena rather than the phenomena themselves and the systems formed by these relations
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
Behaviorist approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
Classical conditionning
Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘natural’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually procedured by the unlearned stimulus alone
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS) i.e. a new association has been learned so that the neutral stimulus (NS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR) which is now called the CR
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) becomes the CS after the NS has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The NS now takes on the properties of the UCS and produces the unconditioned response (now a conditioned response, CR)
Token economy systems
A form of behavioural therapy, where desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of selective reinforcement. For example, patients are given rewards (tokens) as secondary reinforcers when they engage in correct/socially desirable behaviours. The token can then be exchanged for primary reinforcers - food or priviledges
Imitation
Copying the behaviours of others
Social Learnind Theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinfocement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
Identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
Modelling
From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experiences but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation
Mediational processes
Cognitive factors (i.e. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
Attention
The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
Retention
how well behaviour is remebered
Motor reproduction
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation
the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
Role Models
People who have qualities we would like to have and we identify with, thus we model or imitate their behaviours and attitudes
Testosterone
A hormone mainly produced by the testes in males but also in females. It is associated with the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males but has also been implicated in aggression and dominance behaviours
Hormones
Biochemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful
Reciprocal determinsim
A person’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment
Cognitive Approach
An approach focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaiour
Internal Mental Processes
‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
Schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
Information processing approach
Any theory that equates the mind to a computer: input, processing and output of information
Artificial intelligence
Machines showing human like behaviour
Biological approach
A perspective that emphasis the importance of physical process in the body such a genetic inheritance and neural function
Genes
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring
Biological structures
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
Neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
Genotype
The particular set of genes that a person processes
Phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population
Concordance Rate
A measure of similarity (usually expressed as a percentage) between two individuals or sets of individuals on a given trait
Nervous system
Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
Central Nervous System
Consists of the the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions
Peripheral Nervous System
Sends information to the CNS from the outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body
Somatic Nervous System
Transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS. It also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act
Autonomic Nervous System
Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. It is ‘autonomic’ as the system operates involuntarily. It has 2 main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Fight or flight response
The way an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight and aggressor or, in some cases, flee
Adrenaline
A hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is part of the human body’s immediate stress response system. Adrenaline has a strong effect on the cells of cardiovascular system - stimulating the heart rate, contracting blood vessels and dilating air passages
Hormones
Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful
Gland
An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones
Endocrine System
One of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body
Fight or flight response
The way an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor, or in some cases, flee
Thyroid gland
A pair of endocrine glands located in the neck that release hormones important for growth and the activity of cells in the body (metabolism)
Thyroxine
One of the main hormones secreted by the thyroid glands, which controls metabolism
Neuron
The basic building blocks of the nervous system, neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
Pituitary gland
Called the master gland of the body’s hormone system because it directs much of the hormone activity
Sensory Neurons
These carry messages from the Peripheral Nervous System to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons
Relay Neurons
These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons
Motor Neurons
These connect the CNS to the effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons
Cell body
Part of a neuron that contains the genetic material
Dendrites
Branching projections form the end of a neuron carrynerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body
Axon
The long projection of the neuron from the cell body
Myelin Sheath
Fatty layer that protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission
Nodes of Ranvier
The gaps in the myelin sheath that protect the axon of a neuron
Terminal buttons
Communicate with the next neuron in the synapse
Action potential
A short increase and decrease of electrical activity in the membrane of a neuron, transmitting a signal away from the cell body
Adrenal glands
Small glands located on the top of each kidney that are part of the endocrine system. Various hormones are produced including adrenaline and noradrenaline and corticosteroids, including cortisol
Noradrenaline
A hormone and a neurotransmitter that generally has an excitatory effect, similar to the hormone adrenaline. The hormone is produced by the adrenal gland
Neural networks
A structure of interconnected neurons, each with multiple connection
Synapse
The gap between two neurons
Neurotransmitter
Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles which relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into excitatory and inhibitory functions
Synaptic transmission
The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse that separates them
Excitation
When a neurotransmitter, such as adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron and increases the likelihood that the neuron will pass on the electrical impulse
Inhibition
When a neurotransmitter, such as serotonin, increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron which decreases the likelihood that the neuron will pass on the electrical impulse
Synaptic vesicles
Small sacs on the end of a presynaptic neuron that contain neurotransmitters that will be released into a synapse
Postsynaptic receptor site
A receptor on the neuron that is receiving the information at the synapse. A neurotransmitter locks into a specific receptor on the receiving neuron and this triggers an electrical signal in the receiivng neuron
Presynaptic neuron
The transmitting neuron before the synapse
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter . In the central nervous system, acetylcholine plays a role in attention and arousal. In the peripheral nervous system, it works by causing muscles to contract
Psychodynamic Approach
A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
The unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour
Id
Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand instant gratification (pleasure principle)
Ego
The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego (reality principle)
Superego
The unrealistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be (morality principle)
Repression
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
Denial
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
Displacement
Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
Preconscious
Consists of information and ideas that could be retrieved easily from memory and brought into consciousness
Parapraxes
A Freudian slip, a minor error in action, such as slips of the tongue, due to repressed emotions
Defence mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego
Psychosexual stages
Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development
Fixation
In psychoanalytical theory, a focus on a particular stage of psychosexual development because over or under gratification during this stage
Neuroses
A personality or mental disturbance characterised by anxiety but where the patient has no lost touch with reality, as distinct from psychosis
Humanistic Approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
Self-actualisation
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of
Hierarchy of Needs
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved
Self
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’
Congruence
The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match
Conditions of worth
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children. For instance, a parent saying to child, ‘I will only love you…if you study medicine’ or ‘if you split up with that boy’
Ideal self
The person you would like to be
Unconditional positive regard
Providing affection and respect without any conditions attached
Client-centred therapy
A method of treatment for mental disorders where the focus is on the problem from the client’s viewpoint rather than any diagnosis from the therapist
Self-concept
The self as it is currently experienced, all the attitudes we hold about ourselves
Self-esteem
The feelings that a person has about their self-concept
