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Approaches Key Words Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychology

A

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context

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2
Q

Science

A

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws

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3
Q

Introspection

A

A first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of through, images and sensations

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4
Q

Cartesian dualism

A

The distinction made between the body and mind, first systematically discussed by the philosopher Descartes

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5
Q

Empiricism

A

A method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing

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6
Q

Evolutionary theory

A

An account for the changes in species over millions of years; characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are naturally selected

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7
Q

Adaptive

A

Any physical or psychological characteristic that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction, and is thus likely to be naturally selected. Such characteristics are passed on to future generations

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8
Q

Experimental philosophy

A

A field of psychology that uses empirical data as distinct from rational argument

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9
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

A form of psychotherapy, originally developed by Freud, that is intended to help patient become aware of long repressed feelings and issues by using techniques such as free association and dream analysis

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10
Q

Standardised instructions

A

A set of instructions that are the same for all participants so as to avoid investigator effects caused by different instructions

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11
Q

Structuralism

A

Any theory that aims to study the relationship among phenomena rather than the phenomena themselves and the systems formed by these relations

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12
Q

Standardisation

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

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13
Q

Behaviorist approach

A

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

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14
Q

Classical conditionning

A

Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘natural’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually procedured by the unlearned stimulus alone

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15
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment

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16
Q

Reinforcement

A

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative

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17
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

In classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS) i.e. a new association has been learned so that the neutral stimulus (NS) produces the unconditioned response (UCR) which is now called the CR

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18
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

In classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) becomes the CS after the NS has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The NS now takes on the properties of the UCS and produces the unconditioned response (now a conditioned response, CR)

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19
Q

Token economy systems

A

A form of behavioural therapy, where desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of selective reinforcement. For example, patients are given rewards (tokens) as secondary reinforcers when they engage in correct/socially desirable behaviours. The token can then be exchanged for primary reinforcers - food or priviledges

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20
Q

Imitation

A

Copying the behaviours of others

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21
Q

Social Learnind Theory

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinfocement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors

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22
Q

Identification

A

When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model

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23
Q

Modelling

A

From the observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer

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24
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

Reinforcement which is not directly experiences but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation

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25
Q

Mediational processes

A

Cognitive factors (i.e. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

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26
Q

Attention

A

The extent to which we notice certain behaviours

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27
Q

Retention

A

how well behaviour is remebered

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28
Q

Motor reproduction

A

the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

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29
Q

Motivation

A

the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

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30
Q

Role Models

A

People who have qualities we would like to have and we identify with, thus we model or imitate their behaviours and attitudes

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31
Q

Testosterone

A

A hormone mainly produced by the testes in males but also in females. It is associated with the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males but has also been implicated in aggression and dominance behaviours

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32
Q

Hormones

A

Biochemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful

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33
Q

Reciprocal determinsim

A

A person’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment

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34
Q

Cognitive Approach

A

An approach focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaiour

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35
Q

Internal Mental Processes

A

‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

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36
Q

Schema

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience

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37
Q

Inference

A

The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

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38
Q

Cognitive neuroscience

A

The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

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39
Q

Information processing approach

A

Any theory that equates the mind to a computer: input, processing and output of information

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40
Q

Artificial intelligence

A

Machines showing human like behaviour

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41
Q

Biological approach

A

A perspective that emphasis the importance of physical process in the body such a genetic inheritance and neural function

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42
Q

Genes

A

They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring

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43
Q

Biological structures

A

An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

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44
Q

Neurochemistry

A

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

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45
Q

Genotype

A

The particular set of genes that a person processes

46
Q

Phenotype

A

The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

47
Q

Evolution

A

The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population

48
Q

Concordance Rate

A

A measure of similarity (usually expressed as a percentage) between two individuals or sets of individuals on a given trait

49
Q

Nervous system

A

Consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

50
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Consists of the the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions

51
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Sends information to the CNS from the outside world, and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body

52
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Transmits information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS. It also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act

53
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Transmits information to and from internal bodily organs. It is ‘autonomic’ as the system operates involuntarily. It has 2 main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

54
Q

Fight or flight response

A

The way an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight and aggressor or, in some cases, flee

55
Q

Adrenaline

A

A hormone produced by the adrenal glands which is part of the human body’s immediate stress response system. Adrenaline has a strong effect on the cells of cardiovascular system - stimulating the heart rate, contracting blood vessels and dilating air passages

56
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful

57
Q

Gland

A

An organ in the body that synthesises substances such as hormones

58
Q

Endocrine System

A

One of the body’s major information systems that instructs glands to release hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried towards target organs in the body

59
Q

Fight or flight response

A

The way an animal responds when stressed. The body becomes physiologically aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor, or in some cases, flee

60
Q

Thyroid gland

A

A pair of endocrine glands located in the neck that release hormones important for growth and the activity of cells in the body (metabolism)

61
Q

Thyroxine

A

One of the main hormones secreted by the thyroid glands, which controls metabolism

62
Q

Neuron

A

The basic building blocks of the nervous system, neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals

63
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Called the master gland of the body’s hormone system because it directs much of the hormone activity

64
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

These carry messages from the Peripheral Nervous System to the CNS. They have long dendrites and short axons

65
Q

Relay Neurons

A

These connect the sensory neurons to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons

66
Q

Motor Neurons

A

These connect the CNS to the effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons

67
Q

Cell body

A

Part of a neuron that contains the genetic material

68
Q

Dendrites

A

Branching projections form the end of a neuron carrynerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body

69
Q

Axon

A

The long projection of the neuron from the cell body

70
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Fatty layer that protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission

71
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

The gaps in the myelin sheath that protect the axon of a neuron

72
Q

Terminal buttons

A

Communicate with the next neuron in the synapse

73
Q

Action potential

A

A short increase and decrease of electrical activity in the membrane of a neuron, transmitting a signal away from the cell body

74
Q

Adrenal glands

A

Small glands located on the top of each kidney that are part of the endocrine system. Various hormones are produced including adrenaline and noradrenaline and corticosteroids, including cortisol

75
Q

Noradrenaline

A

A hormone and a neurotransmitter that generally has an excitatory effect, similar to the hormone adrenaline. The hormone is produced by the adrenal gland

76
Q

Neural networks

A

A structure of interconnected neurons, each with multiple connection

77
Q

Synapse

A

The gap between two neurons

78
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles which relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into excitatory and inhibitory functions

79
Q

Synaptic transmission

A

The process by which neighbouring neurons communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across the synapse that separates them

80
Q

Excitation

A

When a neurotransmitter, such as adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron and increases the likelihood that the neuron will pass on the electrical impulse

81
Q

Inhibition

A

When a neurotransmitter, such as serotonin, increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron which decreases the likelihood that the neuron will pass on the electrical impulse

82
Q

Synaptic vesicles

A

Small sacs on the end of a presynaptic neuron that contain neurotransmitters that will be released into a synapse

83
Q

Postsynaptic receptor site

A

A receptor on the neuron that is receiving the information at the synapse. A neurotransmitter locks into a specific receptor on the receiving neuron and this triggers an electrical signal in the receiivng neuron

84
Q

Presynaptic neuron

A

The transmitting neuron before the synapse

85
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

A neurotransmitter . In the central nervous system, acetylcholine plays a role in attention and arousal. In the peripheral nervous system, it works by causing muscles to contract

86
Q

Psychodynamic Approach

A

A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience

87
Q

The unconscious

A

The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour

88
Q

Id

A

Entirely unconscious, the id is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand instant gratification (pleasure principle)

89
Q

Ego

A

The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego (reality principle)

90
Q

Superego

A

The unrealistic part of our personality which represents the ideal self: how we ought to be (morality principle)

91
Q

Repression

A

Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

92
Q

Denial

A

Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality

93
Q

Displacement

A

Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target

94
Q

Preconscious

A

Consists of information and ideas that could be retrieved easily from memory and brought into consciousness

95
Q

Parapraxes

A

A Freudian slip, a minor error in action, such as slips of the tongue, due to repressed emotions

96
Q

Defence mechanisms

A

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego

97
Q

Psychosexual stages

A

Five developmental stages that all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development

98
Q

Fixation

A

In psychoanalytical theory, a focus on a particular stage of psychosexual development because over or under gratification during this stage

99
Q

Neuroses

A

A personality or mental disturbance characterised by anxiety but where the patient has no lost touch with reality, as distinct from psychosis

100
Q

Humanistic Approach

A

An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination

101
Q

Free will

A

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces

102
Q

Self-actualisation

A

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of

103
Q

Hierarchy of Needs

A

A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (such as esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved

104
Q

Self

A

The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can do’

105
Q

Congruence

A

The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match

106
Q

Conditions of worth

A

When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children. For instance, a parent saying to child, ‘I will only love you…if you study medicine’ or ‘if you split up with that boy’

107
Q

Ideal self

A

The person you would like to be

108
Q

Unconditional positive regard

A

Providing affection and respect without any conditions attached

109
Q

Client-centred therapy

A

A method of treatment for mental disorders where the focus is on the problem from the client’s viewpoint rather than any diagnosis from the therapist

110
Q

Self-concept

A

The self as it is currently experienced, all the attitudes we hold about ourselves

111
Q

Self-esteem

A

The feelings that a person has about their self-concept

Psychology (18 decks)

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