Research methods descriptions

Question 1

Investigator effects

Answer 1

when the experimenter exerts an influence on the pps.
-Expectation effects- researxher is deeply committed to achieving a particular outcome
-Presence of the observer- can cause pps to behave unnaturally
Reduce effects by using a double blind technique where neither researcher or pps know the aim of the research

Question 2

4 methods to control an experiment

Answer 2

-random allocation- used in an indepent groups design and reduces pp variables
-counterbalancing- used in repeated measures design where pps complete different levels of IV in different order to balance out order effects
-randomisation-adopting a strategy for randomly determining the order of presentation of experimental conditions eg. tossing a coin
-standardisation-all pps have exactly the same experience

Question 3

6 observational techniques

Answer 3

1. naturalisitc-researcher observes naturally occurring behaviour and often carried out in a natural setting eg, child playing in a nursery
   2.controlled-research attempts to control variables, usually in a lab
   3.overt- pps know they are being observed and usually aware of the aim of research
   4.covert- pps don’t know they’re being observed, may involve the researcher being hidden
   5.participant- observer joins the group of people being studied
   6.non participant- remains external to those being observed and records data more objectively

Question 4

3 types of interview

Answer 4

1. structured- interviewees are asked the same set of questions in the same order, produce quantitative data
2. semi-structured- use the same questions but there’s flexibility in the order, the interview flows more naturally and can add new questions
3. unstructured- more informal, the interviewee is largely in control of which issues are discussed

Question 5

Content analysis

Answer 5

-process of changing qualitative data (eg. interviews) into quantitative data
-in order to turn written or visual info into number you need to count the number of times the chosen coding occurs (coding unit)
-coding unit can be top down (decided before content analysis) or bottom up ( decided after you have viewed the material)

Question 6

Target population
Sample

Answer 6

-group which share characteristics which researcher wants to draw conclusions eg. a level psych. students
-target population is too large so only a subset of the population is used

Question 7

5 Sampling techniques

Answer 7

-random
-opportunity
-systematic
-stratified
-volunteer

Question 8

Opportunity sample

Answer 8

-selected by most easily available eg. someone on the street
-unrepresentative of population
-researcher bias as choosing pps
-can’t generalise

Question 9

Random sample

Answer 9

-all target population have chance to be selected
-pps selected by drawing names from a hat etc.
-no researcher bias
-representative so easier to generalise

Question 10

Systematic sample

Answer 10

-putting target population into an order eg. alphabetical and selecting every 10th person
-no researcher bias
-representative

Question 11

Stratified sample

Answer 11

-sample reflects key characteristics of strata in target population
-researcher identifies types of people that make up target population and works out proportion of strata
-no researcher bias
-representative

Question 12

Volunteer sample

Answer 12

-researcher does advert asking for volunteers
-volunteer bias
-difficult to generalise

Question 13

Aim

Answer 13

-developed before research
-general statement which outlines what is being investigated
-developed from previous theories/ research

Question 14

Hypotheses

Answer 14

-formulated after an aim
-specific prediction about the outcome of investigation
-experimental hypothesis= experimental method carried out and there is an IV an DV
-alternative hypothesis= used with a non-experimental method eg. observation
-directional hypothesis= predicts direction of results eg. one condition of IV has less of effect on DV
-non directional= doesn’t predict direction only states there will be a difference

Question 15

Peer review

Answer 15

-psychological research papers are subjected to scrutiny by other psychologists prior to publication
-consider validity, significance and originality

Process
-researcher submits papers to editor
-experts read report assessing appropriateness of methods and designs used
-sent back to editor with comments

-process can be open (researcher and reviewer are known to each other)
-Single blind ( reviewer knows the researcher but researcher doesn’t know the reviewer)
-Double blind (neither reviewer nor researcher know who did it)

Question 16

Purpose of peer review

Answer 16

-makes sure research in the scientific and public domain is of the highest quality
-only published if it makes an important contribution to the scientific field
-peers assess how original the work is and whether it refers to other research

Question 17

Internal reliability
External reliability

Answer 17

-extent to which the measurement is consistent within itself- tested by split half method (split questionnaire check both halves test same thing)
-extent to which a measurement varies from one use to another- tested by test re-test

Question 18

Internal validity definition and how to test

Answer 18

• Concerned with factors inside the study eg. whether the researcher tested what they intended to test, if the results are due to manipulation of IV not extraneous variables

Assess by
-face validity- simplest, at face value does the study appear to measure what it set out to. Other researchers may look at the design to see if appropriate
-concurrent validity- where new measures in a study are compared to a previously validated study. A strong positive correlation suggests the new measure has validity

Question 18

External validity definition and how to test

Answer 18

• Concerned with factors outside study, extent to which research findings can be generalised to others beyond the study

Assess by
-Ecological validity- extent we can generalise to different contexts (mundane realism/ experimental realism)
-Temporal validity- extent we can generalise to different time periods

Question 18

Features of science

Answer 18

Objectivity- scientists expectations shouldn’t affect their recordings. Standardised instructions, operationalised variables and the double blind technique aid objectivity
Empirical method-using research evidence to help develop and find support for theories
Theory- collection of general principles to explain observations and facts
Replication- needs be be repeated or could be an anomaly/fluke, to replicate details of the study must be published including procedure, data and results. Gives confidence to conclusions made and adds to scientific knowledge
Falsifiability- theory needs to be able to be tested to see if its false. eg. Freud’s theory can’t br proven false as can’t test unconscious so is subjective.

Question 19

Theory construction

Answer 19

-use facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict natural phenomena
Induction- theory developed due to research
Deduction- theory developed form observations and then research is carried out

Question 20

Paradigm shifts

Answer 20

Paradigm- general theory/law accepted by majority in the field. As evidence is gathered, the existing paradigm is replaced y another one
Kuhn suggests science develops in 3 stages:
1. Pre science- variety of theories try to explain phenomenon but no widely accepted theory eg. psychology
2. Normal science- generally accepted paradigm has emerged and dominates science. eg. bio, chem, phys
3. Revolutionary science- accumulation of evidence against existing paradigm questions it and other theories are put forward. After a long time a new paradigm is created, this is called paradigm shift

Question 21

Thematic analysis

Answer 21

-used for qualitative data
-identifies categories, themes, phrases that may be found in data
-understand meaning of data
-data needs to be transcribed first

Question 22

3 stages for conducting thematic analysis

Answer 22

1.familiarise with data, read transcript multiple times, think how what was said relates to research
2. Coding, give labels/codes to data eg. every time thinking about future put TF
3. Categorisation, codes reviewed to look for themes relevant to research