Research Methods Flashcards
Pilot Study
A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials etc. work and to allow researcher to make changes if necessary.
Single-blind Procedures
A type of research design in which a participant is not aware of research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving.
Double-blind Procedures
Neither the participant nor researcher conducting the study are aware of the research aims or other important details of a study, and thus have no expectations that might alter a participant’s behaviour.
Pie Chart
Discreet data. Used for percentages and categorical data.
Histogram
Used for continuous data. Columns touch because each one forms single score (interval) on a related scale. Frequency on y-axis. Scores on x-axis.
Scattergram
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis.
Bar Chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars. Used for discreet categorical data.
Line Graph
Used to represent continuous numerical data. Can be used to make estimations about the scores between those represented on the graph. All points are plotted and a line drawn between them.
Population Validity
Type of external validity which describes how well the sample used can be generalised to a population as a whole.
Internal Validity
Whether the effects observed in an experiment are due to manipulation of independent variables or another factor. (How controlled the study is.)
Ecological Validity
A type of external validity. How well you can generalise a study to different settings or situations. Must have/be: (1) mundane realism of task, (2) mundane realism of environment, (3) do participants know they are taking part?
External Validity
How well you can generalise from research participants - affected by internal validity.
Mundane Realism
How realistic the task is (in everyday life).
Operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
Null Hypothesis
Predicts no relationship between co-variables.
Hypothesis
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study.
Directional Hypothesis
States the direction of the difference or relationship.
Non-directional Hypothesis
Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship.
Independent Variable
The variable that changes.
Dependent Variable
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.
Variables
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes in another.
Extraneous Variable
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the DV if it is to controlled.
Confounding Variables
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV.
Repeated Measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Matched Pairs Design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B.
Independent Groups Design
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Experimental Design
The different ways in which the testing of the participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
Naturalistic Observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.
Controlled Observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment.
Participant Observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
Unstructured Observation
Every instance of a behaviour is recorded in as much detail as possible. Useful if the behaviours you are interested in do not occur very often.
Structured Observation
The researcher uses various ‘systems’ to organise observations, such as a sampling technique and behavioural categories.
Covert Observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
Overt Observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
Non-participant Observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording.
Qualitative Data
Data that is expressed in words. (Although may be converted to numbers for the purpose of analysis).
Quantitative Data
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers.
Sampling Methods
Includes continuous sampling/recording, event sampling and time sampling.
Stratified Sample
Participants are selected in proportion to their occurrence in the target population.
Systematic Sample
A mathematical way of selecting participants for a study. Every nth person is selected from a list of the target population.
Sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
Opportunity Sample
Select participants who happen to be available.
Random Sample
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected to participate.
Sampling Techniques
The method used to select people from the population.
Volunteer Sample
Participants put themselves forward to participate in research.
Likert Scales
Respondents can indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a statement.
Primary Data
Information that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project.
Secondary Data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project.
Interval Data
Place data in order. Intervals are known as they are fixed. Can make comparisons. Objective data. (e.g. time taken to get to college).
Ordinal Data
Place data in order. Intervals are unknown. Subjective. (e.g. attraction rating).
Nominal Data
Data that is in categories. The least complex type of data. (e.g. tally chart).
Laboratory Experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
Natural Experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. Researcher records effect on the DV.
Field Experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
Quasi-Experiment
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone- the ‘variables’ simply exist (e.g. being old or young).
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.
Co-variables
The variables investigated within a correlation. They are not referred to as the IV and DV because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause and effect relationship.
Correlation Co-efficients
A statistic that describes the relation between two sets of paired data/mathematical calculation that expresses degree of relationship between variables. Always between -1 and +1. Bigger the number, the stronger the relationship.
Third Variable Problem
An unintentional third variable influences two separate variables that are being measured. Problem with correlations.
Negative Correlation
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases.
Positive Correlation
As one co-variable increases, so does the other.
Zero Correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables.
Interview
A ‘live’ encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences.
Questionnaire
A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.
Structured Interviews
Any interview where the questions are decided in advance, basically a questionnaire delivered in person.
Semi-structured Interviews
An interview that combines some pre-determined questions and some questions developed in response to answers given.
Unstructured Interviews
The interview starts out with some general aims, and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions.
Open Questions
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.
Closed Questions
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter.
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.
Random Allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.
Experimental Method
Involves manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable.
Debriefing
Post research interview designed to inform the participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study.
Confidentiality
Keeping information private. Participants should feel confident that the study’s report won’t reveal information or data which makes it possible for individual participants to be identified.
Reliability
Consistency of study and its data. If repeated, would it get similar results in retest?
Validity
The extent to which a study produces a result that is legitimate.
Right to Withdraw
An ethical issue: participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a research study if they are uncomfortable with the study.
Deception
An ethical issue, most usually where a participant is not told the true aims of a study and thus cannot give truly informed consent.
Prior General Consent
Prospective participants in a research study are asked if they would take part in certain kinds of research, including ones involving deception. If they say yes, they have given their general consent to take part in such research.
Informed Consent
An ethical issue where participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether to participate.
Ethical Issues
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
BPS Code of Ethics
Produced by the British Psychological Society. Instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants.
Protection of Participants
Psychologists have a responsibility to protect their participants from harm. Should not be exposed to more risk than they would expect to experience in everyday life.
Retrospective Consent
Obtaining permission after a study or event.
Presumptive Consent
A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in a study. If they agree, then consent of participant is presumed.
Descriptive Statistics
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
Measures of Central Tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data.
Mode
The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
Mean
The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values there are.
Median
The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest.
Measures of Dispersion
The general term for any measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.
Range
A simple calculation of the dispersion in a set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score and adding 1 as a mathematical correction.
Standard Deviation
A sophisticated measure of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score. All the differences are added up and divided by the number of scores. This gives the variance. The standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
Self-report Technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.
Normal Distribution
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median and mode are all located at the highest peak.
Skewed Distribution
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.
Negative Skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.
Positive Skew
A type of distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
Demand Characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. May lead to a participant changing their behaviour.
Population
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn.
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all the participants in a research study.
Order Effects
In a repeated measures design, a confounding variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented. E.g. practise effect, boredom effect, demand characteristics.
Social Desirability Bias
A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light.
Interviewer Bias
A partiality towards a preconceived response based on the structure, phrasing of questions asked in the interviewing process.
Continuous Sampling
Key feature of unstructured observations in which all instances of a target behaviour are recorded.
Randomisation
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
Bias
In the context of sampling, when certain groups may be over or under-represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Continuous Recording
Making a note of everything without pause.
Event Sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.
Target Population
The entire group a researcher is interested in. The group about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions.
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order. ABBA technique.
Observer Bias
In observational studies, there is a danger that observers’ expectations affect what they see or hear. This reduces the validity of the observations.
Meta-analysis
‘Research about research’, refers to the process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic to provide an overall view.
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population.
Investigator Effects
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome.
Time Sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame (e.g. 60 seconds).
Effect Size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Behavioural Categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable.
Probability
A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur.
Inter-rate Reliability
Consistency between 2 or more observers. Their independent ratings are correlated.
Representative
Ideally, the sample that is drawn will be representative of the target population so that generalisation of findings becomes possible.
Peer Review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality.
Economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.
Publication Bias
The tendency for academic journals to publish only positive findings, or findings that agree with existing theory.
Statistical Testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. In psychology, they tell us whether the differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or have occurred by chance.
Sign Test
A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items.
Availability Heuristic
When our thinking is ‘clouded’ by information that is in our mind more. People will judge on the basis or ‘rules’ that are ‘available’.
Framing Effect
Information in the environment is often presented as positive or negative (gain or loss) and our choices are effected accordingly.
