Gender

Question 1

Sex

Answer 1

Biological difference between males and females. Determined by chromosomes and influenced by hormones. It’s fixed and can’t be changed. Innate.

Question 2

Gender

Answer 2

Psychological differences between males and females. How the individual feels, behaves and how they identify themselves. Fluid and due to nurture.

Question 3

Gender Identity Disorder (GID)

Answer 3

Defined as disorders in which an individual exhibits marked and persistent discomfort with their own sex or sense of inappropriateness in the gender role of that sex.

Question 4

The Batista Boys

Answer 4

Boys born with female genitals and raised as such but had XX chromosomes. When puberty hit, surge in testosterone resulted in the production of male genitals and masculinisation. Had little problems with adjusting to their new roles. Suggests that gender identity may be more flexible rather than fixed.

Question 5

Sex-role stereotypes

Answer 5

Widely held ideas about what behaviours men and women should perform. They are shared expectations a society or culture holds about appropriate behaviour for males and females.

Question 6

Ingalhaliker et al. (2014)

Answer 6

Scanned the brains of 949 men and women using MRI imaging. Found that women had better connections between the different sides of their brains and that men had more activity within each part of the brain. Could conclude from this that men are better at motor skills and women have better memory. Suggests therefore that sex-role stereotypes have some truth to them.

Question 7

Smith and Lloyd (1978)

Answer 7

4-6 month old babies were dressed in boy and girl clothing regardless of actual sex then observed interacting with adults. When dressed as boy, they were given a hammer shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous. When dressed as a girl, given a cuddly doll and repeatedly told they were pretty. Suggests gender appropriate behaviour is taught an early age through reinforcement which supports the SLT.

Question 8

Androgyny

Answer 8

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one personality.

Question 9

BSRI

Answer 9

Bem Sex Role Inventory. Sandra Bem developed this method to measure androgyny through a series of closed questions. rating is on a 7 point scale from never to always true.

Question 10

BSRI Evaluation

Answer 10

The scale appears to be valid and reliable. There is an association between androgyny and psychological well-being but this has been challenged by Adams & Sherer. Oversimplifies a complex concept. Cultural and historical bias. Many problems of using questionnaires to measure gender identity such as acquiescence and social desirability bias.

Question 11

Role of Chromosomes and Hormones

Answer 11

Sex decided at conception by the 23rd pair of chromosomes. The SRY gene (sex determining region Y) can cause testes to develop which produce androgens (male sex hormone). Without androgens, the embryo will develop into a female with ovaries which produce oestrogen (female sex hormone).

Question 12

Van Goozen et al.

Answer 12

Assessed behaviour of transexuals undergoing hormone therapy. Found hormones gave M to F more feminine behaviours and vice versa.

Question 13

Dabbs et al.

Answer 13

Prisoners with high testosterone levels more likely to commit violent or sexually motivated crimes.

Question 14

Tricker et al.

Answer 14

Males given weekly injections of either testosterone or placebo. No significant differences found in aggression levels.

Question 15

Atypical chromosomes

Answer 15

Not all have typical XX or XY chromosome pattern. Atypical chromosome patterns involve having an additional or missing chromosome.

Question 16

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Answer 16

Biologically male but have an additional X chromosome i.e XXY. Reduced body hair, underdeveloped genitals, poor language skills, passive.

Question 17

Turner’s Syndrome

Answer 17

Biologically female but have a missing X chromosome. No menstrual cycle, ovaries and breasts don’t develop, webbed neck, high reading ability, socially immature.

Question 18

David Reimer

Answer 18

A twin case study. Had penis burnt off in operation when he was 7 months. Case suggests that chromosomal influence may be more important in environment in gender development.

Question 19

Herlihy et al (2011)

Answer 19

Australian study. 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed that those who had been identified and treated at a young age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed later on in life.

Question 20

Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 20

Cognitive explanation of gender. As child’s cognitive abilities develop, so do their understanding of gender. Three universal stages: Gender identity, Gender stability and Gender constancy. After this last stage, imitation of role models begins.

Question 21

Gender Schema Theory

Answer 21

Age 2-3, child develops gender identity and acquires their gender schema. Children begin to look for info to build their gender schema, particularly for their in-group, until age 8 approx. when they start to develop elaborate schemas for BOTH genders. Children’s schemas may cause them to misremember info that doesn’t fit with their schema.

Question 22

Martin and Halverson

Answer 22

5 and 6 years old shown photos of gender consistent and gender inconsistent behaviour. Recall tested after a week. Schema consistent were well recalled but schema inconsistent were not well recalled and often distorted.

Question 23

Freud’s Theory

Answer 23

Children resolve their Oedipus/Electra complexes by identifying with the same sex parents. Includes internalising gender identity of the same sex parent and adopting their gender role.

Question 24

Oedipus Complex

Answer 24

Freud’s explanation of how a boy resolves his love for his mother and feelings of rivalry towards his father by identifying with his father.

Question 25

Electra Complex

Answer 25

A process similar to the Oedipus Complex. In girls, an attraction to and envy of their father is resolved through identification with their mother.

Question 26

Identification

Answer 26

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because they possess certain desirable characteristics.

Question 27

Internalisation

Answer 27

An individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another.

Question 28

Single Parent Families

Answer 28

Freud explained that if a boy grew up without a father they would be less masculine and more likely to be homosexual. He also believes boys who had a weak father will not develop a healthy gender identity.

Question 29

Reckers and Moray

Answer 29

Investigated sample of boys with GID. Found that often fathers were absent from birth or had left home when the boy was very young. Suggests both parents are necessary for healthy gender developments.

Question 30

Golambok

Answer 30

Found children from one parent families go on to develop typical gender identities.

Question 31

Green

Answer 31

Found only one of 37 children who were raised by transgender parents went on to have a non-typical gender identity.

Question 32

SLT in Gender

Answer 32

All behaviour including gender is learnt from others, there are no psychological differences between m and f when they’re born. Learn gender through models in our environment.

Question 33

Stages in learning gender

Answer 33

Acquisition (attention and retention) and performing (reproduction/imitation and reinforcement).

Question 34

Smith and Lloyd

Answer 34

Videoed 32 mothers playing with babies. 4 types of babies (m dressed as m, f dressed as f, m dressed as f and f dressed as m). Given sex-typed and sex -neutral toys. Mothers gave sex typed toys to babies dependent on their perceived genders.

Question 35

Culture and gender roles

Answer 35

If a gender role is consistent across cultures, could conclude that this represents innate biological difference between genders. However, if culturally specific could conclude that influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive.

Question 36

Cultural differences: Mead

Answer 36

Studied gender roles of tribes. One tribe was similar to western stereotype of femininity, one similar to masculinity and the other was the reverse of western stereotype. Suggests it may be culturally determined instead of biological.

Question 37

Cultural Similarities: Buss

Answer 37

Found consistent patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries. Women sought men who could offer wealth and men looked for youth.

Question 38

Media and gender roles

Answer 38

Media provides role models with whom children may identify and imitate. Media confirms gender-typical behaviour and reinforces adopting these behaviours.

Question 39

Rigid Stereotypes: Bussey and Bandura

Answer 39

Media provides clear rigid gender stereotypes. Men seen as independent, ambitious etc and women seen as dependent, unambitious etc.

Question 40

Information Giving: McGhee and Frueh

Answer 40

Children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender-stereotypical views.

Question 41

Gender Identity Disorder (GID)

Answer 41

Also known as gender dysphoria. Characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex.

Question 42

Evidence to support cultural influences: Tager and Good

Answer 42

Compared gender roles of American and Italian males. And compare north, central and southern Italians.

Question 43

Zhou et al.

Answer 43

Studied size of the BTSc which is assumed to be 40% larger in males. 6 male to female transgender people studied post-mortem. BSTc found to be similar size to the typical female brain.

Question 44

Krujiver et al.

Answer 44

Studied number of neutrons in BTSc in the same six transgender (m to f) and found amount of neurons were an average number in the female range.

Question 45

Heylens et al.

Answer 45

Found that 39% of monozygotic twins were concordant for GID where one of each pair has been diagnosed in comparison to dizygotic twins.

Question 46

Psychoanalytic theory for GID

Answer 46

Argues that GID in males is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established. Child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother and so adopts a female gender identity.

Question 47

Cognitive Explanation for GID

Answer 47

Extension of gender schema theory that emphasises individual differences. Some children gender attitudes are affected by their activity. Individual personal interests may become more dominant than gender identity and so influence the gender schema which can lead to GID.