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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the key concepts in used in the experimental method

A
  • Aim
  • Hypothesis
  • Experimental method
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2
Q

Aim

A

a general expression of what the researcher intends to investigate

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3
Q

what is a hypothesis

A

a statement of what the researcher believes to be true

it should be operationalised i.e. clearly defined and measurable

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4
Q

what are the 3 types of hypothesis

A
  • the null hypothesis: states that there will be no change in the dependent variable when the independent is manipulated
  • directional hypothesis: states whether the change in dependent variable is greater or lesser, +ve or -ve
  • Non directional hypothesis: doesn’t state the direction just that there is a difference, correlation or association
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5
Q

general research issues
(issues that can occur in general research)
(3)

A
  1. extraneous and confounding variables
  2. demand characteristics
  3. investigator effects
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6
Q

what are extraneous and confounding variables

A
  • extraneous variables (EVs) are nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV. a researcher may control some of these
  • confounding variables (CV) change systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure if any observed change is the DV is due to the CV or the IV. CVs must be controlled.
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7
Q

what are demand characteristics

A

refers to any cue from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the aim of the study. this leads to the participant behaving unnaturally or at the demand of the research (doing what they think is wanted)

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8
Q

investigator effects

A

any effect of the investigator behaviour on the outcome of the research (the DV)

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9
Q

what are some research techniques used (4)

A
  • randomisation
  • standardisation
  • control groups
  • single blind and double blind
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10
Q

what is randomisation

A

the use of chance when designing investigations to control the effects of bias

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11
Q

what is standardisation

A

using exactly the same formalised procedures for all participants in a research study

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12
Q

what are control groups

A

control groups are used for the purpose of setting a comparison. they acta as a baseline and helps establish causation

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13
Q

what is single blind and double blind

A

single blind- is where a participant doesn’t know the aims of the study so the demand characteristics are reduced
double blind - both participants and researcher don’t know the aims of the study reduces demand characteristics and investigator effects

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14
Q

what are the 3 types of experimental method

A
  1. independent groups
  2. repeated measures
  3. matched pairs
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15
Q

what is independent groups

and evaluation

A

one group do condition A and a second group do condition B. participants should be randomly allocated to experimental groups
evaluation:
+ no order effects. participants are only tested once so can’t practise or become bored/ tired. this controls an important CV
+ will not guess aim. participants only tested once so are unlikely to guess the research aims. therefore behaviour may be more natural. no demand characteristics
- participant variables: the participants in the 2 groups are different, acting as EV / CV. may reduce validity of the study
- more participants: need twice as many participants as repeated measures for same data. more time spent recruiting which is expensive

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16
Q

what is repeated measures

evaluation

A

same participants take part in all conditions of an experiment. the order of conditions should be counterbalanced to avoid order effects
+ participant variables. the person in both conditions has the same characteristics. this controls an important CV
+ fewer participants: half the number of the participants needed in independent groups. less time and money spent recruiting participants
- order effect. participants may do better or worse when doing a similar task twice. reduces the validity
- participants may guess aim. participants may change their behaviour. this may reduce the validity of the results

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17
Q

what is matched pairs

evaluation

A

two groups of participants are used but they are also related to each other by being paired on participant variables that matter for the experiment
+ participant variables: participant matched on a variable that is relevant to the experiment. this enhances the validity of the results
+ no order effects: participants are only tested once so no practice or fatigue effects, this enhances the validity of the results
- matching pairs not perfect: matching is time consuming and can’t control all relevant variables. may not address participant variables
- more participants. need twice as many participants as in repeated measures for the same data more time spent recruiting which is expensive.

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18
Q

what are the 4 different types of experiments

A
  • laboratory experiments
  • field experiments
  • natural experiments
  • quasi experiment
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19
Q

what is a laboratory experiment

A

a control evironment where extraneous and confounding variables can be regulated
participants go to researcher
the IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorder

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20
Q

what are the advantages of laboratory experiments

A

+ EVs and CVs can be controlled: this means that the effect of EVs and Cvs on the DV can be minimised. cause and effect between the IV and DV can be demonstrated (high internal validity)
+ can be easily replicated. due to the standardised procedures the experiment can be repeated. if the results are the same this confirms their validity

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21
Q

what are the limitations / disadvantages of laboratory experiments

A
  • may lack generalisability. the controlled lab environment may be rather artificial and participants are aware they are being studied. thus behaviour may not be natural and cant be generalised to everyday life. (low external validity)
  • demand characteristics. these are cues in the experimental situation that invite a particular response from participants. the results of the experiment may be explained by these cues rather than the effect on the IV
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22
Q

what is a field experiment

A

a natural setting. the researcher goes to participants

the IV is manipulated and the effect on the DV is recorded

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23
Q

what are some advantages of field experiments

A

+ more natural environment: participants more comfortable in their own environment. results may be more generalisable to everyday
+ participants are unaware of being studied. they are more likely to behave as they normally do so the findings can be generalised. the study as greater external validity

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24
Q

what are some limitations / disadvantages of field experiments

A
  • more difficult to control CVs. observed changes in the DV may not be due to the IV, but to CVs instead. it is more difficult to establish cause and effect
  • there are ethical issues: participants in a field experiment may not have given informed consent. this is an invasion of their privacy
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25
Q

what is a natural experiment

A

the experimenter does not manipulate the IV. the IV would have varied even if the experimenter wasn’t interested
DV may occur naturally or may be measured by the experimenter

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26
Q

what are some advantages of a natural experiment

A

+ may be the only ethical option: it may be unethical to manipulate the IV. a natural experiment may be the only way causal research can be done for such topics
+ greater external validity: natural experiments involve real life issues, such as the effect of natural disaster on stress levels. this means the findings are more relevant to real experiences

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27
Q

what are some disadvantages / limitations of a natural experiment

A
  • the natural event may only occur rarely: many natural events are one-offs and this reduces the opportunity for research. this may limit the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations
  • participants are not randomly allocated: the experimenter has no control over which participant are placed in which condition as the IV is pre-existing. may results in CVs that aren’t controlled.
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28
Q

what is a quasi experiment

A

IV is based on a preexisting difference between people e.g age or gender. no one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists
DV may be naturally occurring or may be measured by the experimenter.

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29
Q

what are some advantages of a quasi experiment

A

+ there is often high control: often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore shares some of the strengths of lab experiments. this means increased confidence about drawing causal conclusions
+ comparisons can be made between people. in a quasi experiment the IV is the difference between people e.g people with and without autism. this means that comparisons between different types of people can be made

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30
Q

what are some disadvantages of a quasi experiment

A
  • participants are not randomly allocated: the experimenter has no control over which participant are placed in which condition as the IV is pre-existing. participant variables may have caused the change in the DV acting as a CV
  • causal relationship not demonstrated. the researcher does not manipulate / control the IV. we cannot say for certain that any change in the DV was due to the IV
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31
Q

what are the 5 different types of sampling

A
  • opportunity sample
  • volunteer sample
  • random sample
  • systematic sample
  • stratified sample
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32
Q

what is a population

A

the large group of people that a research is interested in studying

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33
Q

what is a sample

A

it is usually not possible to include all members of the population in the study so a smaller group is selected

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34
Q

what does a sample have to be in order to make generalisations to the population

A

the sample that is drawn should be representative of the population so generalisations can be made

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35
Q

what makes a sample bias

A

the majority of samples are biased

this means that certain groups may be over or under represented.

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36
Q

what is an opportunity sample.

how do you get an opportunity sample

A

people who are simply most available i.e the ones who are nearest / easiest to obtain
ask people nearby

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37
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of an opportunity sample

A

+ quick method: is convenient because you just make use of the people who are closest. this make it one of the most popular sampling methods
- inevitable biased. the sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area. this means that the findings cannot be generalised.

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38
Q

what is a volunteer sample

and how do you obtain one

A

self selecting. the participants select themselves

can be obtained by advertising

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39
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of using a volunteer sample

A

+ participants are wiling, they have selected themselves and know how much time and effort is involved. likely to engage more than opportunity sample
- likely to be a biased sample: participants may share certain traits e.g keen and curious. generalisation limited due to the volunteer bias.

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40
Q

what is a random sample

how do you obtain one

A

every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
lottery method. all members of the target population are given a number and use a random number generator

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41
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of using a random sample

A

+ potentially unbiased. the research has no influence over who is selected. free from research bias
- representation not guaranteed. still possible that a random method may produce a biased sample. limits ability to generalise

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42
Q

what is a systematic sample

how can you obtain one

A

sampling frame. participants are selected using a set pattern (sampling frame)
every nth person is selected from a list of the target population

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43
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a systematic sample

A

+ unbiased. the first item is usually selected at random objective method
- time and effort. a complete list of the population is required. may as well use random sampling.

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44
Q

what is a stratified sample

how can you obtain one

A

frequency. participants are selected according to their frequency in the target population
subgroups (or strata) are identified, such as gender or age groups. the relative percentages of the subgroups in the population are reflected in the sample

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45
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of a stratified sample

A

+ representative method. the characteristics of the target population are represented. generalisability more likely than other methods
- stratification is not perfect. strata cannot cannot reflect all the way in the people are different. complete representation is not possible

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46
Q

what are the 4 ethical issues

A
  1. informed consent
  2. deception
  3. protection from harm
  4. privacy and confidentiality
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47
Q

what is the abbreviation for ethical issues

A 
can - informed consent 
do - debrief 
cant - confidentiality 
do - deception 
with - withdrawal 
participants - protection from harm
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48
Q

informed consent

A

participants should be able to make an informed judgement about whether to take part
too much information may affect participant’s behaviour so there are some alternatives:
- presumptive - ask a similar group
- prior general - agree to be deceived
- retrospective - get consent after the study

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49
Q

what are the 3 alternative forms of consent

A
  • presumptive - ask a similar group
  • prior general - agree to be deceived
  • retrospective - get consent after the study
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50
Q

deception

A

deliberately misleading or withholding information so consent is not informed.
a debrief is given at the end of a study

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51
Q

what should be included in the debrief (5)

A
  1. the true aims of the investigation
  2. details that were not given during the study such as other groups or conditions
  3. what their data will be used for
  4. there right to withhold data
  5. reassured that their behaviour was typical/ normal (protection from harm)
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52
Q

protection from harm

A

participants should be at no more risk than they would be in everyday life

  • should be given the right to withdraw at each stage of the research process
  • should be reassured that their behaviour was typical / normal during the debriefing
  • researchers should provide counselling if participants have been distressed.
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53
Q

privacy / confidentiality

A

is all about the right to control

we have a right to control information about ourselves. if this is invaded confidentiality should be respected

54
Q

what are the rules surrounding privacy and confidentiality

A
  • if personal details are held these must be protected. usually there are no personal details recorded
  • researchers refer to participants using numbers, initials or false names
  • participants personal data cannot be shared with other researchers
55
Q

what is an ethical commitees

A

it weighs up the costs and benefits before deciding whether a study should go ahead

56
Q

BPS code of conduct is based on 4 principles

A
  • respect
  • competence
  • responsibility
  • integrity
57
Q

what is an observation

A

a way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. Is often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the DV

58
Q

overall evaluation of observations

A

+ can capture unexpected behaviour. people often act different from how they say they will in self report methods. observations are useful as they give insight into spontaneous behaviour
- risk of observer bias. researcher’s interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. Bias can be reduced using more than one observer

59
Q

types of observations (6)

A
  • naturalistic
  • controlled
  • covert
  • overt
  • participant
  • non participant
60
Q

what is a naturalistic observation (and evaluation)

A

takes place where the target behaviour would normally occur
+ high external validity. it a natural context, behaviour is likely to be more spontaneous. more generalisable to everyday life
- low control. there may be uncontrolled EVs. makes it more difficult to detect patterns

61
Q

what is a controlled observation (and evaluation)

A

some control / manipulation of variables including control of EVs
+ can be replicated. more easily repeated due to standardised procedures. findings can be checked to see if they occur again
- may have low external validity. behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting. findings cannot be applied to everyday experience

62
Q

what is a covert observation (and evaluation)

A

participants are unaware they are being studied
+ demand characteristics are reduced. participants do not know they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural. this increases the validity of the findings
- ethically questionable. people may not want behaviour recorded, even in public. participant’s right to privacy may be affected

63
Q

what is a overt observation (and evaluation)

A

participants are aware of being studied
+ more ethically acceptable. participants have given their consent to be studied. they have the right to withdraw if they wish
- demand characteristics. knowledge of being studied influences behaviour. reduces the validity of the findings

64
Q

what is a participant observation (and evaluation)

A

when the researcher becomes part of the group they are studying
+ can lead to greater insight. researcher experiences the situation as the participants do. this enhances the validity of the findings
- possible loss of objectivity. the researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying. this threatens the objectivity and validity of the findings

65
Q

what is a non participant observation (and evaluation)

A

when the researcher remains seperate from the group they are studying
+ more objective. researcher maintains an objective distance so less chance of bias. may increase the validity of findings
- loss of insight. researchers may be too far removed from those they are studying. may reduce the validity of the findings

66
Q

observational design (3)

A
  • behaviour categories
  • time sampling
  • event sampling
67
Q

what are behavioural categories (and evaluation)

A

used in observations
the target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into set of observable categories. this is similar to the idea of operationalisation
- difficult to make clear and unambiguous. categories should be self evident and not overlap, not always possible to achieve. smiling and grinning would be poor categories
- dustbin categories. all forms of behaviour should be in the list and not one dustbin. dumped behaviours go unrecorded.

68
Q

what is time sampling (evaluation)

A

observational design
observations are made at regular intervals
+ reduces the number of observations. rather than recording everything that is seen (i.e. continuous) data is recorded at certain intervals. the observation is more structured and systematic
- may be unrepresentative. the researcher may miss important details outside of the time scale. may not reflect the whole behaviour

69
Q

what is event sampling (and evaluation)

A

observational design
a target behaviour / event is recorded every time it occurs
+ may record infrequent behaviour. the researcher will still pick up behaviours that do not occur at regular intervals. such behaviours could easily be missed using time sampling
- complex behaviour oversimplified. if the event is too complex important details may go unrecorded. this may affect the validity of the findings.

70
Q

what are the 2 self report techniques

A
  • questionnaires

- interviews

71
Q

what are questionnaires

A

are made up of pre-set list of written questions (or items) to which a participant responds
they can be used as part of an experiment to assess the DV

72
Q

questionnaires evaluation

A

+ can be distributed to lots of people. can gather large amounts of data quickly and the researcher need not be present when completed. reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost effective.
+ respondents may be willing to open up. respondents may share more personal information than in an interview as they are less self conscious. there may be less chance of social desirability bias compared to an interview
- responses may not be truthful. respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light. thus social desirability bias is still possible
- response bias. respondents may favour a particular kind of response e.g they always agree. this means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way.

73
Q

what are interviews

what are the 3 types of interviews

A

face to face interaction between interviewer and interviewee.

  • structured interviews
  • unstructured interviews
  • semi-structured interviews.
74
Q

what are structured interviews (and evaluate)

A

list of predetermined questions asked in a fixed order
+ easy to replicate. straightforward to replicate because of standardised format. the format also reduces differences between interviewers
- interviewees cannot elaborate. interviewees cannot deviate from the topic or elaborate their points. this may be a source of frustration

75
Q

what is an unstructured interview (and evaluate)

A

there are no set questions. there is a general topic to be discus but the interaction is free flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate
+ there is greater flexibility. unlike a structured interview points can be followed up as they arise. more likely to gain insight into interviewee’s worldview
- difficult to replicate. such interviews lack structure and are not standardised. greater risk of interviewer bias

76
Q

what is a semi-structured interview

A

list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are free to ask follow up questions when appropriate

77
Q

how do you write a good question for a questionnaire

A
  • avoid jargon
  • avoid double barrelled questions
  • avoid leading questions
78
Q

what are closed questions (and evaluate)

A

respondents have limited choices
data is quantitative
+ easier to analyse. can produce graphs and charts for comparison. makes it easier to draw conclusions
- respondents are restricted. forced into an answer that may not be representative of true feelings. may reduce the validity of the findings

79
Q

what are open questions (and evaluate)

A

respondents provide their own answers expressed in words
data are qualitative
+ respondents are not restricted. answers are more likely to provide detailed, unpredictable information. likely to have more validity than statistics.
- difficult to analyse. wider variety of answers than produced by quantitative data. may be forced to reduce data to statistics

80
Q

how are interviews designed (4 points)

A
  1. interview schedule. a standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover, can reduce interviewer bias.
  2. quiet room. will increase the likelihood the interviewee will open up
  3. rapport. begin with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed
  4. ethics. remind interviewees that answers will be treated in confidence
81
Q

what are pilot studies

A

used in all types of research
is a small scale trail run of a research design before doing the real thing
the aim is to find out if certain things don’t work so you can correct them before spending time and money on the real thing.

82
Q

quantitative data

evaluate

A

numerical data
+ easier to analyse. can draw graphs and calculate averages. can eyeball data and see patterns at a glance.
- oversimplifies behaviour. means that individual meanings are lost

83
Q

qualitative data

evaluate

A

non numerical data expressed in words
+ represents complexities. more detail included. can also include information that is unexpected
- less easy to analyse. large amount of detail is difficult to summarise. difficult to draw conclusions, many ifs and buts.

84
Q

primary data and evaluate

A

first hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation
+ fits the job. study designed to extract only the data needed. information is directly relevant to research aims
- requires time and effort. design may involve planning and preparation. secondary data can be assessed within minutes.

85
Q

secondary data and evaluate

A

collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research
+ inexpensive. the desired information may already exist. requires minimal effort making it inexpensive
- quality may be poor. information may be outdated or incomplete. challenges the validity of the conclusions

86
Q

meta analysis and evaluate

A

a type of secondary data that involves combing data from a large number of studies. calculation of effect size.
+ increases validity of conclusions. the eventual sample size is much larger than individual samples. increases the extent to which generalisations can be made.
- publication bias. researchers may not select all relevant studies leaving out negative or non significant results. data may be biased because it only represents some of the data and incorrect conclusions are drawn.

87
Q

what is peer review

A

before publication all aspects of the investigation are scrutinised by experts (peers) in the field.
these experts should be objective and unknown to the researchers

88
Q

what are the aims of peer review

A
  • funding: allocate research finding
  • validation of the quality and relevance of research
  • improvements and amendments are suggested.
89
Q

evaluate peer review

A

+ protects quality of published research. minimises possibility of fraudulent research and means published research is of the highest quality. preserves the reputation of psychology as a science and increases the credibility and status of the subject

  • may be used to criticise rival research. a minority of reviewers may use their anonymous status to criticise rival researchers. often there is competition for limited research funding so this may be an issue
  • publication bias. tendency for editors of journals to want to publish headline grabbing findings. means that research that does not meet this criterion is ignored or disregarded
  • ground breaking research may be buried. reviewers may be much more critical of research that contradicts their own view. peer review may slow down the rate of change within scientific disciplines.
90
Q

what are case studies

A

to study a case in psychology is to provide a detailed and in depth analysis of an individual, group, institution or event
case studies tend to be longitudinal and may involve gathering data from family and friends of the individual as well as the person themselves.

91
Q

what type of people or things do case studies focus on

A

unusual and typical
case studies often involve the analysis of unusual individuals or events, such as a person with a rare disorder or the sequence of events
case studies may also concentrate on more typical cases such as an elderly person’s recollections from childhood

92
Q

what type of data does case studies produce

A

researchers will construct a case history of the individual or event, using interviews, observations, questionnaires.
data collected is mainly qualitative
psychological tests may also be used to asses intelligence or personality these usually produce quantitative data

93
Q

evaluation of case studies

A

+ rich detailed insight. preferred to the more superficial forms of data that might be collected. such detail is likely to increase the validity of the data collected
+ enables study of unusual behaviour. some behaviours / conditions are very rate and cannot be studies using other methods. in addition some cases help understanding of normal functioning.
- prone to researcher bias. conclusions are based on the subjective interpretation of the researcher. this may reduce the validity of the study
- participants accounts may be biased. personal accounts may be prone to inaccuracy/ memory decay. therefor evidence provided may be low in validity.

94
Q

what is content analysis

A 
is a type of observational research.
People are studied indirectly via the communications they have produced.
this may include:
- spoken interaction 
- written forms 
- examples from the media
95
Q

what is the first stage of content analysis and what type of data does it produce

A

coding
some data sets are extremely large so information needs to be categorised into meaningful units.
This involve counting up the number of times a particular word or phrases appears in the text to produce quantitative data.

96
Q

what is thematic analysis

A

a theme in content analysis refers to any idea that is recurrent in the communication being studied.
these themes are more descriptive than the coding units
this produces qualitative data

97
Q

evaluation of content analysis

A

+ may ethical issues may not apply. the material to study may already be in the public domain. so there are no issues with obtaining consent
+ a flexible method. content analysis can be adapted to produce both quantitative and qualitative data as required. this means it is a flexible approach that can be adapted to suit the aims of the research
- communication is studied out of context. the researcher may attribute motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended. this is likely to reduce the validity of the conclusions drawn.
- may lack objectivity. content analysis may lack objectivity especially when more descriptive forms of thematic analysis are used. such bias may threaten the validity oft the findings and conclusions.
however, reflectivity is a method of addressing the lack of objectivity. personal viewpoints are seen as an important part of the data collection.

98
Q

reliability

A

is the measure of consistency.
of a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then that measurement is described as being reliable.

99
Q

what are the 2 ways of testing reliability

A
  • test-restest

- inter-observer

100
Q

what is test-re-test

A

assessing reliability
test the same person twice
the same test or questionnaire is given to the same person (or people) on 2 or more different occasions.
if the test or questionnaire is reliable the results should be the same (or very similar) each time it is administered.

101
Q

what is inter observer testing

A

compares observations from different observers.
in an observation, 2 or more observers compare their data by conducting a pilot study - a small scale trial run of the observation to check that observers are applying behavioural categories in the same way.
observers should watch the same event, or sequence of events, but record their data independently.

102
Q

how is reliability measured

A

is measured using correlation.
in test-re-test and inter-observer reliability, the 2 sets of scores are correlated. the correlation coefficient should exceed +80 for reliability

103
Q

how do you improve the reliability of questionnaires

A

rewrite questions
a questionnaire that produces low test retest reliability may need some item to be deselected or rewritten. the researcher may replace some open questions (which can be misinterpreted) with closed, fixed choice alternatives which may be less ambiguous.

104
Q

how do you improve the reliability of interviews

A

improved training
the best way of ensuring reliability in an interview is to use the same interviewer each time
of this is not possible, all interviewers must be trained. so they avoid questions that are leading or ambiguous

105
Q

how do you improve the reliability of experiments

A

standardised procedures
lab experiments are often described as being reliable because of the strict control over many aspects of the procedure, such as the instructions that the participants receive and the conditions within which they are tested.

106
Q

how do you improve reliability in observations

A

operationalisation of behavioural categories
behavioural categories should be measurable
categories should not overlap and all possible behaviours should be included
if categories are overlapping or absent, different observer have to use their own judgement in deciding what to record and where and may end up with inconsistent records.

107
Q

what is validity

A

whether an observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the real world
is the result legitimate

108
Q

how can data be reliable but not valid

A

a test that claims to measure intelligence (IQ test) may produce the same result every time when the same people are tested but not measure what it is designed to.

109
Q

what is ecological validity

A

do findings generalise to other settings
ecological validity refers to whether findings can be generalised from one setting to another, most particularly generalise ti every day life.
this may not be related to the setting but more to the task the participants are asked to perform.

110
Q

what is temporal validity

A

do findings remain true over time
findings should be consistent over time.
for example Asch’ study may lack temporal validity because it was conducted during a conformist era in American history.

111
Q

how do you assess validity (2 ways)

A
  • face validity

- concurrent validity

112
Q

what is face validity

A

whether a test looks like it measures what it should
a basic method
this achieved by simply looking at the measuring instrument or by passing it to an expert to check.

113
Q

what is concurrent validity

A

whether findings are similar to those on a well established test.
a new intelligence test may be administered to a group of participants
their scores are them compared with performance in well established test (correlation should exceed +80 for validity)

114
Q

how do you improve validity in experiments

A

control groups and standardisation
a control group means the the researcher is more confident that changes in the DV were due to the effect of the IV
standardised procedures minimise the impact of participants reactivity and investigator effects

115
Q

how do you improve validity in questionnaires

A

lie scale and confidentiality
lie scales control for the effect of social desirability bias
respondents are assured that all data submitted is confidential

116
Q

how do you improve validity in observations

A

good categories.

behavioural categories that are well defined, thoroughly operationalised and non ambiguous or overlapping.

117
Q

how do you improve validity in qualitative research

A

interpretive validity and triangulation
interpretive validity demonstrated through the coherence of the reporting and the inclusions of direct quotes from participants
triangulation involves using a number of different sources as evidence

118
Q

how is a psychological paper organised

A
  • abstract
  • introduction
  • method
  • results
  • discussion
  • referencing
119
Q

what is an abstract

A

a short summary that includes all the major elements, the aims and hypotheses, method/ procedure, results and conclusions
a summary of the study

120
Q

what is an introduction

A

a literature review
a look at relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study
the research review should follow a logical progression - beginning broadly and becoming more specific until the aims and hypothesis are presented

121
Q

what is a method

A

the method should include sufficient detail so that other researchers are able to replicate the study:
- design: (e.g independent groups, naturalistic observation etc.) and reasons / justification given for the choice
- sample - how many participants, biographical/demographic information (as long as this does not compromise anonymity) the sampling method and target population
- apparatus / materials
- procedure list of everything that happened. standardised instructions, briefing and debriefing .
- ethics how these were addressed
should be detailed enough for replication

122
Q

what are the results

A

a summary of key findings from the investigation

  • descriptive statistics, graphs measures of central tendency etc.
  • inferential spastics including reference to choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values the level of significance and the final outcome
  • any raw data that was collected and any calculations appear in an appendix rather than the main body.
123
Q

what is the discussion

A

summary of the relationship to previous research, limitations and implications

  • summary of findings in verbal form
  • relationship of the results to previous research
  • consideration of the limitations of the study plus suggestion of how these might be addressed in a future study
  • wider real world implications
124
Q

what are the features of science (6)

A
  • paradigms and paradigm shifts
  • theory constriction
  • falsifiability
  • replicability
  • objectivity
  • empirical method
125
Q

what are paradigms and paradigms shifts

A

Kuhn (1962) said that what distinguishes scientific discipline from non scientific disciplines is a shared set of assumptions and methods - a paradigm
Kuhn argued that social sciences (including psychology) lack universally accepted paradigm and are best seen as pre-science unlike natural sciences such as biology
paradigm shift occur, according to Kuhn, when there is a scientific revolution. a handful of researchers begin to question the accepted paradigm when there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore.

126
Q

what is theory construction

A

a theory is set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours
testing a theory depends on being able to make clear and precise predictions on the basis of the theory
a hypothesis can then be tested using scientific methods to determine whether it will be supported or refuted

127
Q

deduction

A

the process of deriving a new hypothesis from an existing theory

128
Q

what is falsifiability

A

Popper (1959( argued that the key criterion of scientific theory was this.
genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up or hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proved false
popper distinguished between theories which can be challenged and what he called pseudosciences which couldn’t be falsified
he believed that even when a scientific principle had been successfully and repeatedly tested, it was not necessarily true.
instead it had simply not been proved false.

129
Q

replicability as a feature of science

A

testing the validity of research results
if a scientific theory is to be trusted the findings from it most be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts
by repeating a study, as Popper suggested we can see the extent to which the findings can be generalised

130
Q

objectivity

A

scientific researcher must keep a critical distance during research. they must not allow their personal opinions or biases to discolour the data or influence the behaviour of participants
as a general rule, those methods in psychology that are associated with the greatest level of control trend to be the most objective.

131
Q

empirical method

A

emphasise the importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience
the experimental method and the observational method are good examples of the empirical method in psychology
early empiricists such as John Locke saw knowledge as determined only by experience and sense perception. a theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested.

Psychology A level (15 decks)

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