issues and debates Flashcards
gender bias
psychological theory and research that does not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men or women.
this leads to the differential treatment and representation of genders based on stereotypes and not real differences
why are psychologists sometimes bias
psychologists possess beliefs and values influenced by the social and historical context within which they live.
This may undermine psychologists claims to discover facts about human behaviour that are objective, value free and consistent across time and culture (universality)
alpha bias
exaggerates the differences between the genders
differences between the sexes are usually presented as real, enduring, fixed and inevitable.
these differences occasionally heighten the value of women but are more likely to devalue females in relation to males.
example of alpha bias
sociobiological theory of relationship formation
Wilson explained human sexual attraction through survival efficiency, it is in a males interest to try and impregnate as many females as possible to increase the chances of his genes being passed on to the next generation.
the female;s best chance to preserve her genes is to ensure the survival of the relatively few offspring she may produce.
sexual promiscuity in males is naturally selected and genetically determined
but females who engage in the same behaviour are seen as going against their nature.
there is an exaggeration of the differences between the sexes
example of alpha bias
Freud
Freud argued that there are genuine psychological differences between males and females.
he suggested that women are inferior
young girls suffer from penis envy and femininity is a failed form of masculinity.
he exaggerated the differences
beta bias
minimises the differences between the sexes often assuming findings based on one sex can equally apply to the other.
ignoring or underestimating differences between men and women often occurs when female participants are not included in the research process and it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes.
example of beta bias
fight or flight response
early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate).
the fight or flight response was assumed to be universal response to a threatening situation.
Taylor et al suggested female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriending).
females exhibit a tend and befriend response governed by the hormone oxytocin.
what is a consequence of beta bias
androcentrism
what is androcentrism
theories which are centred or focused on males.
if our understanding of normal behaviour comes from research involving all male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is judged as being abnormal or inferior.
this leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and even pathologised (taken as a sign of illness)
example of Androcentrism
Ash’s conformity studies used 123 male participants he assumed that the results would apply to women equally hence it had a androcentric view on conformity
as a result of beta bias we end up with research with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply equally but in fact has a androcentric view
androcentrism
example of when female experience has been pathologised
many feminists object to the category of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) because it medicalises female emotion (anger) by explaining these in hormonal terms.
but male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressure.
evaluation of gender bias
strengths
- understanding leads to reflexivity. researchers recognise the effect of their values on their work. embrace bias as an important aspect rather than a problem. by reflecting on how gender related experiences may influence understanding of results in research. greater awareness of the role of personal bias.
- feminist psychologist propose how it is avoided. women should be studied within meaningful real life contexts, and genuinely participate in research instead of being objects of study. diversity in groups of women rather than comparisons between males and females. greater emphasis on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data.
evaluation gender bias
limitations
- problems in psych research. gender biased research create misleading assumptions about female behaviour validate discriminatory practises. justification to deny things. damaging consequences in real life.
- promotes sexism in research process. lack of women at senior research level means female concerns not reflected in research questions. male research more likely to be published. female participants inequitable relationship with researcher power to label them. may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism.
- essentially argument common. many gender differences based the idea that gender differences are inevitable and fixed in nature. 1930 intellectual activity shrivelled a woman’s ovaries. politically motivated arguments disguised as biological facts. makes double standard on how the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.
cultural bias
the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through your own culture.
if the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour will inevitably be seen as abnormal, inferior or unusual this is cultural bias.
why may psychologists be culturally bias
many critics argue that although psychology may claim to have unearthed truths about people all over the world (universality), in reality findings from studies only apply to the particular groups of people who were studied.
researchers have wrongly assumed that findings from studies in western cultures can be applied all over the world.
example of research that is not universal
studies of conformity (Asch) and obedience (Milgram) revealed very different results when they were replicated in parts of the world outside of the US
ethnocentrism
belief in superiority of one’s own ethnic and cultural group.
Own cultural perspectives is taken as the standard to measure others to.
in psychological research this may be communicated through a view that any behaviour that does not conform to the (usually western) model is somehow deficient or underdeveloped
example of ethnocentric research
Ainsworth strange situation
has been criticised as reflecting only the norms and values of American culture in attachment research
she identified the key defining variable of attachment type as the child’s experience of anxiety on separation.
she suggested the idea (or secure) attachment was the infant showing moderate distress when left alone by the mother figure.
this lead to misinterpretation of child rearing practises in other countries which deviated from the American norm.
for example German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children
thus the strange situation was revealed as an inappropriate measure of attachment type for non- US children
imposed etic. assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied universally
example of ethnocentric research
Yerkes IQ test
an american devised test for the military
it produced lower IQ scores for eastern European immigrants
this was because the questions were culturally relative to America so only those who had grown up their could get a high score.
reinforced notions that white Americans were superior.
culturally relativism
behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates.
the facts and things that psychologists discover may only make sense from the perspective of the culture within which they were discovered
being able to recognise this is one way of avoiding cultural bias in research
etic constructs
looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and identifies behaviour that are universal.
analyses universal behaviour
behaviour that holds across all cultures.
emic constructs
an emic approach functions from within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
constructs are specific to a given culture and vary from one culture to the next. looks at behaviour from inside a cultural system.
imposed etic
culturally specific ideas wrongfully imposed on another culture.
evaluation of culture bias
strengths
- recognition of both cultural relativism and universals. imposed etic shows the culturally specific nature of pscyh. but not all is culturally relative. basic facial expression universal. some features found in attachment universal. a full understanding requires both
- cross cultural research challenges western assumptions.
great benefits of conducting research challenge views. concepts and knowledge can be taken for granted. promotes greater sensitivity to individual differences and culture. more likely to be valid if they recognise role of culture.
evaluation of cultural bias
limitations
- distinction between individualist and collectivist. individual value individual and independence. collectivist value interdependence. simplistic no longer applies. 14 out of 15 studies comparing US to Japan found to distinction. cultural bias is less of an issue than it once was
- demand characteristics. when conducting research in western participants familiarity with aims of scientific enquiry is assumed. in cultures without historic experience of research may be affected by demand characteristics. infamilarity with research tradition threatens the validity.
- difficulties with interpretation of variables. variables under review may not be experienced in the same way by all participants. emotions may give rise to different behaviours within indigenous populations compared to the west. issues like these may affect interactions between research and participant. reduce validity of cross cultural studies.
free will
is the idea that we are self determined.
the notion of free will suggests human beings are free to choose their thoughts and actions
there are biological and environmental influences on our behaviour, but free will implies we can reject them.
this is the view of the humanistic approach
determinism
all behaviour is caused by preceding factors and thus predictable. casual laws of determinism forms the basis of science
hard determinism (fatalism)
all human action has a cause, it should be possible to identify these causes.
this is compatible with the aims of science which assume that what we do is dictated by internal or external forces that we cannot control
human behaviour is wholly determined by factors out of our control. no genuine free will or ethically accountable for their actions.
soft determinism
all human action has a cause but people have conscious mental control over behaviour.
James’ scientists should explain the determining forces acting upon us, but we still have freedom to make choices.
cognitive approach
whilst acknowledging that all human action has a cause also suggest room to manoeuvre in that people have conscious mental control
