approaches Flashcards
definition of psychology
the scientific study of the human mind and it’s functions, especially those functions affecting behaviours in a given context
definition of science
a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. Aiming to discover general laws
introspection
the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
who was the first person to establish a psychology lab.
what was his aim?
Wundt
opened a psychological lab in germany in 1874
aim was to describe the nature of human consciousness (the mind) in a carefully controlled and scientific environment- a lab
what was the method Wundt pioneered
introspection
first systematic experiment to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
structuralism
isolating the structures of consciousness
e.g Wundt’s introspection
what were the standardised procedures Wundt used?
the same standardised instructions were given to all participants.
so procedures could be replicated
e.g participants were given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations which were then recorded.
what was the significance of Wundt’s work?
although his early attempt to study the mind would be seen today as naive
his wok was significant as it marked the separation of modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical roots
timeline for the emergence of psychology
1900s early behaviourists rejected introspection
1930s behaviourism
1950s cognitive approach
1990 biological approach
1900s watson
behaviourists rejected introspection
watson argued that introspection was subjective
according to the behaviourist approach, scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured.
1930s Skinner
behaviourist approach
Skinner brought the language and rigour of the natural sciences into psych
the behaviourists focused on learning and the use of carefully controlled lab studies
would dominate psych for the next few decades.
1950s
cognitive approach
following the cognitive revolution the study of mental processes was seen as legitimate within psychology
although mental processes remain private cognitive psychology are able to make inferences about how these work on the basis of tests conducted in a controlled lab.
1990s
biological approach introduced due to technological advances
biological psychology have taken advantage of recent advances in technology, including recording brain activity using scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG and advances in genetic research
evaluation of Wundt and introspeciton
- some aspects of method would be classified as scientific. e.g he recorded the introspection within a controlled lab environment he standardised his procedures.
forerunner to the latter scientific approaches in psych - other aspects unscientific: relied on participants self reporting mental processes. such data is subjective, untruthful and they may not have the same thoughts every time so establishing general principles is impossible.
evaluation of emergence of psychology as a science
- claim to be scientific. some aims of the natural science to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. so approaches rely on scientific method
- not all approaches use objective methods. humanistic approach is anti-scientific does not attempt to form any general laws. psycho-dynamic use of case study open to bio not representative. scientific approach to study of human experience not possible nor desirable difference between subject matter.
what does the behaviourist approach concerned with studying?
behaviourist approach is only concerned with studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
it is not concerned with mental processes of the mind
what can the assumptions of behaviourism apply to
behaviourists suggest the processes that govern learning are the same in all species.
so animals can replace humans as experimental subject.
classical conditioning
and Pavlov’s research
conditioning dogs to salivate when a bell rings
UCS (food) —> UCR (salivation)
NS (bell) —-> no response
NS (bell) + UCS (food)
CS (bell) —> CR (salivation)
pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus (bells) can elicit a new learned response (CR) through association
operant conditioning
learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment
behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
Skinner’s research
operant conditioning
rats and pigeons in specially designed cages (Skinner boxes)
when a rat activated a lever it was rewarded with a food pellet
a desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated
if pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated
3 types of consequences in operant conditioning
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
punishment (negative and positive)
positive reinforcement
increases the likelihood of a response occurring because it involves a reward for the behaviour
negative reinforcement
increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
when an animal / human produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
punishment
negative and positive
an unpleasant consequence to behaviour reducing likeliness of behaviour being repeated.
+ve punishment: consequence receiving something unpleasant which decreases probability of the behaviour being repeated
-ve punishment: removing something desirable decreasing probability behaviour being repeated.
evaluation of the behaviourist approach
strengths
+ gave psych scientific credibility: focused on carefully measurements observable behaviour in lab, importance of scientific process objectivity and replication, language and method of natural science to psych increasing credibility and status
+ real life applications: principles of conditioning applied to a broad range of behaviours and problems. Token economies. suitable treatment for patients who lack insight and not capable of talking about problems.
evaluation of behaviour approach
limitations
- mechanistic views: animals seen as passive machines as responds to environment with little choice or insight. importance of mental events has a more active role in learning.
- environmental determinism. All behaviours determined by past experience. ignores free will as an illusion. Past conditioning history determines outcome.
- ethical and practical issues of animal research: although maintain high degree of control exposed to stressful and adverse conditions affect how they reacted reducing validity behaviour not normal.
social learning theory
proposed by Bandura who extended the behaviourist approach idea that learning occurs through experience
proposed that learning takes place in a social context through observation and imitation of other’s behaviour
vicarious reinforcement
SLT
children (and adults) observe other peoples behaviour and take not of its consequences
behaviour that is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) is much more likely to be copied than behaviour that is punished
what are the 4 meditatonal (cognitive) processes that play a crucial role in learning
SLT
1. Attention - whether behaviour is noticed
2. Retention- whether behaviour is remembered
3. motor reproduction - being able to do it
4. motivation - the will to perform behaviour
1&2 relate to learning behaviour
3&4 relate to performance of behaviour
learning and performance do not have to occur together.
identification with role model
SLT
children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom they identify
such role models are similar to the observer they tend to be attractive and have high status
Bandura’s research 1
imitation
SLT
imitation of aggression
children watched either:
- an adult behaving agg towards a bobo doll
- an adult behaving non-agg towards a bobo doll
when given their own bobo doll to play with, the kids who had seen agg were much more agg towards the doll
Bandura’s research 2
vicarious reinforcement
SLT imitation of aggressoon children saw adult who was: - rewarded - punished - no consequences when given their own bobo doll, the children who saw aggressive behaviour rewarded were much more aggressive themselves.
conclusions from Bandura’s research
children model aggressive behaviour
the bobo doll studies suggest that children are likely to imitate (model) acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model
it is also the case that modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement)
evaluation of social learning theory
strengths
- importance of cognitive factors: Behaviourism is not comprehensive because cognitive factors are emitted. storing info about behaviours to make judgements on when appropriate to perform. SLT is a more comprehensive explanation as it includes metitational processes.
- account for cultural differences: explains how children learn from individuals and media and how norms are transmitted. useful in understanding behaviour
- SLT less deterministic: emphasis reciprocal determinism we have influence on environment through behaviours we chose to perform. Free will. more realistic and flexible
evaluation of social learning theory
Limitations
- over reliance on evidence from lab studies: Bandura watching kids in lab. contrived nature procedure produced demand characteristics as the purpose of the bobo doll is to hit it so kids behaving how they thought was expected of them. Can’t be applied to everyday life.
- underestimates biological factors influence: Bandura little reference to biological factors boys are more aggressive regardless of situation because more testosterone. these factors have important influence and is not accounted for in SLT.
cognitive approach
in direct contrast to the behavioural approach
focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour
looking at internal mental processes, schema and interference making use of cognitive neuroscience
role of interference in the cognitive approach
mental processes are private and cannot be observed.
so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences (assumptions) about what is going on inside people’s heads on the basis of their behaviour.
theoretical models
e.g
information processing approached suggests that info flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in multi store model
theoretical models used by cognitive approach when describing and explaining mental processes
computer models
cognitive used to describe and explain mental processes
computer analogy suggested similarities in how computers and humans process information
e.g the use of a central processor (the brain) changing of information into a usable code and the use of stores to hold information
what are schemas
a schema are packages of information developed through experience
they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
babies are born with simple motor schemas for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping
as we get older, our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated.
