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memory Flashcards

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1
Q

coding

A

the format in which information is stored in various memory stores
process of converting information from one from to another

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2
Q

Baddely

A

coding in STM and LTM
1. acoustically similar words 2. dissimilar
3. semantically similar 3. dissimilar
- Immediate recall worse with acoustically similar words.
STM is acoustic
recall after 20 minutes worse with semantically dissimilar words. LTM is semantic

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3
Q

evaluation of study into coding in STM and LTM (Baddely)

A

artificial stimuli: word lists are meaningless material.
no personal meaning. when processing more meaning full info may use semantic coding even for STM tasks.
limited application - cant generalise.

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4
Q

capacity of short term memory (2 studies)

A

Jacobs
digit span: reads 4 digits and increases until participants cannot recall order correctly.
on average participants could repeat back 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters in correct order immediately
Miller
observation of everyday practises. rule of 7
the span of STM is about 7 items but can be improved by chunking - grouping into meaningful units

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5
Q

evaluation of studies into capacity of STM

A

lacking validity: Jacobs study conducted a long time ago and lacked adequate control
miller overestimated capacity of STM. more research has concluded capacity was only about 4 chunks. lower end of the estimate is more appropriate.

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6
Q

study into the duration of LTM

A

Bahrick et al
- 400 participants from ohio aged 12-74
high school year books
photo recognition of 50 photos. 2 free recall test recalling names
48 years after recall of recognition was 70%
free recall was less good
15 years 60% accurate dropping to 30% after 48 years

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7
Q

study into the duration of STM

A

peterson and peterson
- tested 24 undergrads in 8 trials
- constant syllable and 3 digit no. to remember
students then asked to count back in 3 from that 3 digit no. untill told to stop preventing rehearsal.
stopped counting at different times
retention intervals
students recalled 80% syllable with 3 second intervals
18 seconds fell to 3%
STM without rehearsal is 18 - 30 seconds

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8
Q

evaluation of study into duration of STM (peterson)

A

meaningless stimuli: artificial material does not reflect real life so lacks external validity not totally irreverent as there are some applications. such as learning mobile numbers

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9
Q

the multi store memory model (MSM)

A

a representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores

describes how info is transferred from one store to another and how it is forgotten if not rehearsed

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10
Q

MSM

sensory register

A

made up of multiple stores
- ionic: visual info
- echoic: auditory info
stimulus from the environment pass through
it has a store for each sense
very short duration less than 1 second. very high capacity
very little of what goes in goes to a further memory system unless you are paying attention to it.

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11
Q

MSM

short term memory store

A
  • limited capacity of 5-9 items average of 7
  • info coded acoustically
  • duration of 30 seconds if not rehearsed
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12
Q

MSM

long term memory store

A
  • a permanent memory store
  • duration - potentially up to a lifetime
  • capacity - potentially unlimited
  • coding - semantic in terms of meaning
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13
Q

MSM

retrieval

A

when we want to recall materials stored in LTM it has to be transferred back to STM by a process called retrieval

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14
Q

MSM

maintenance rehearsal

A
  • occurs when we repeat materials to ourselves we can keep info in STM as long as we can rehearse it
  • if we rehearse long enough it passes to LTM
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15
Q

evaluation of multi store memory model

A
  • support research: Baddeley mix up similar sounding words in STM and mixing up similar meaning words in LTM. STM - acoustic and LTM semantic. support stores as separate and independent
  • more than 1 type of STM: amnesia suffers. STM memory of digits poor but improved when he read it himself. non verbal sounds. more than one type of STM
  • artificial materials: research uses meaningless info and lacks external validity and can’t be generalised to every day life.
  • oversimplifies LTM: LTM not unitary store, semantic, episodic. limitation
  • MSM 1 type of rehearsal: maintenance and elaboration which is needed for long term link info to existing knowledge.
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16
Q

evaluation of the study into the duration of LTM

Bawick et al

A

high external validity: used real life meaningful memories when replicated with meaningless pictures recall falls.
confounding variables not controlled
participants might have looked at the book and rehearsed their memories between recalls.

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17
Q

types of long term memory

A
  • episodic
  • semantic
  • procedural
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18
Q

procedural memory

A 
stores knowledge of how to do things.
learned motor skills 
we find them difficult to explain 
recall without conscious or deliberate effort.
cannot actively recall them.
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19
Q

episodic memory

A

LTM memory store for personal event includes memories of when the event occurred - time stamped
includes several elements such as people, objects, places etc.
memory has to be retrieved consciously and with effort.

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20
Q

sematic memory

A 
knowledge of the world 
includes facts 
knowledge of concepts 
memories are not time stamped 
less personal. knowledge we all share 
immense collection of material 
memories need to be recalled deliberately and with conscious effort.
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21
Q

evaluation of types of long term memory

A

clinical / case studies: amnesia (HW) difficulty recalling events bit semantic and procedural memory worked fine. supports.
neuroimaging : memory tasks while in PET scanners episodic in left and semantic in right prefrontal. physical reality. supporting validity
real life application: target kinds pf memories. episodic can be improved with mild cognitive therapy in patients.
problems with clinical case studies lack control and are hard to generalise
2 types of LTM : episodic and semantic are stored together and both are consciously controlled.

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22
Q

working memory model (WMM)

A

representation of short term memory.
see STM as a dynamic processor of different types of info using sub units coordinated by a central decision making system

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23
Q

visuo - spatial sketchpad (VSS)

A

Working memory model
stores visual and spatial info. capacity of 3-4 objects. subdivided into
- visual chache - stores visual data
- inner scribe records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

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24
Q

what is the VSS subdivided into

A

visuo - spatial sketchpad

  • visual chache - stores visual data
  • inner scribe records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
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25
Q

central executive

A

WMM
- attentional process that monitors incoming data making decisions and allocates slave system to tasks
very limited processing capacity

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26
Q

episodic buffer

A

WMM
-added to the model by Baddeley
- temporary store for info, integrating visual, spatial and verbal info
- processed by other stores and maintaining same sequencing
capacity of 4 chunks
maintains sense of time sequencing recording events (episodes) that are happening
links the working memory to long term memory and wider cognitive processes

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27
Q

phonological loop

A
  • deals with auditory info preserves the order in which info arrives
    divided into
  • phonological store: stores words you hear
  • articulatory process: allows maintenance rehearsal. capacity is 2 seconds of speech.
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28
Q

what is the phonological loop subdivided into

A
  • phonological store
    stores words you hear
  • articulatory process:
    allows maintenance rehearsal. capacity of 2 seconds of speech.
29
Q

evaluation of working memory model WMM

A
  • case of KF: poor STm ability for verbal info but could process visual. so only the phonological loop was damaged
  • dual task performance: it is more difficult doing 2 visual tasks than visual and verbal. because the 2 visual tasks compete for space
  • lack of clarity of central executive: CE more clearly defined. consists of many components not fully or clearly explained
  • word length: limited space for rehearsal hard to remember longer words
  • brain scans: central executive in prefrontal cortex and activity increases with difficulty
30
Q

types of interference

A
  • PI proactive interference

- RI retroactive interference

31
Q

proactive interference

A

forgetting which occurs when an older memory interferes with a newer one.

32
Q

retroactive interference

A

forgetting which occurs when a newer memory interferes with an older one

33
Q

how does forgetting long term memory occur by interference

A
  • two pieces of information conflict resulting in forgetting
  • LTM is permanent. forgetting is due to not being able to access memories
  • interference makes it harder to locate memories.
34
Q

Mc Geoch and Mc Donald

A

key study in interference
- studied retroactive interference changing amounts of similarities.
participants learned a list of 10 words to 100% accuracy. then learned a new list:
1. synonyms 2. antonyms 3. unrelated 4. nonsense syllables 5. 3 digit no. 6. control
most similar materials (1) produced worse recall of original list.
interference is strongest when memories are similar.

35
Q

key factor in interference

A

similarity

  • interference is worse if the memories are similar
  • PI previously stored similar info makes new info harder to store
  • RI new info overwrites previous similar memories.
36
Q

evaluation of forgetting via interference

A
  1. artifical materials: deomonstrated more in lab. articfical tasks can’t be applied to everyday life
  2. evidence from lab studies: consistently demonstrate . lab control. valid explanation.
    3 time between learning. short time periods used in lab studies do not reflect with real life. cannot generalise
  3. real life studies: Rugby players. the more games played in the mean time was a bigger influence than time since the game
  4. overcome using cues: recall fell as given additional lists. a cued recall rose recall back to 70%
37
Q

retrieval failure

A

form of forgetting which occurs when we don’t have the right cues to access memory
memories are available but not accessible
people forget because of insufficient cues.
when info is initially stored associated cues are also stored
if cues are not available at recall forgetting will occur.

38
Q

2 types of retrieval failure

A
  • context dependent forgetting (external cues)

- state dependent forgetting (internal cues)

39
Q

cue

A

a trigger of information that allows us to access memory

may be meaningful or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning

40
Q

Godden and Baddeley

A

context dependent forgetting experiment

  • deep sea divers learned a list of words on land or under water recalled either on land or underwater
  • accurate recall 40% lower in non matching conditions. external cues available at encoding were different from ones at recall leading to retrieval failure
41
Q

encoding specification principle ESP

A

Tulvig

  • a cue is to help us recall information
  • has to be present at encoding and retrieval
  • if cues available at encoding are different to retrieval there will be some forgetting.
42
Q

evaluation of retrieval failure theory

A
  • support evidence: impressive range. increasing validity evidence in real life as well as lab studies
  • questioning context affect: not strong low recall. life application
  • recall v recognition: sea divers replication using recognition no context dependent effect cues affect memory only when tested a certain way.
  • problems with ESP: cant be tested un-falsifiable
  • real life application: recall in learned environment. basic principle of cognitive interview
43
Q

cuter and cassaday

A

state dependent forgetting experiment

  • gave antihistamine drugs which has a mild sedative effect
  • learned words on drug or not recalled on drug or not
  • mismatched conditions had sig worse performance as cues were absent.
44
Q

what are the factors affecting eyewitness testimony

A
  • leading questions
  • post event discussion
  • anxiety
45
Q

two types of misleading information

A
  • leading questions

- post event discussion

46
Q

leading questions

A

a question which is phrased to suggest a certain answer

47
Q

response bias explanation of leading questions

A

wording of question has no enduring effect on memory of an event but influences the kind of answers given

48
Q

substitution explanation of leading questions

A

wording of question affects memory

it interferes with original memory distorting accuracy.

49
Q

loftus and Palmer

A

leading questions research
- participants watched a video clip of a car accident
then asked what speed the car was going when they hit
the verb hit suggests speed. this verb was changed in different conditions
estimated speed calculated for each group
verb contacted mean estimated speed of 32 mph
smashed 41 mph
leading questions biased eyewitness recall of event
also is smashed was used they were more likely to report broken glass when there was none (substitution explanation)

50
Q

Post event discussion

A

when co-witnesses discuss with each other

testimonies become contaminated because they combine miss information from other witnesses with their own memories.

51
Q

post event discussion memory contamination explanation

A

when co-witnesses discuss a crime they mix mis information from other witness with their own

52
Q

post event discussion memory conformity explanation

A

witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witness are right/

53
Q

2 explanations for post event discussion

A
  • memory contamination

- memory conformity

54
Q

misleading information

A

incorrect information given to the eyewitness after the event

55
Q

gabbert et al

A

post event discussion research

  • pairs watched video of the same crime but from different points of view. could see different elements
  • both participants then discused before being individually tested
  • 71% of participants mistakenly recalled aspects they did not see
56
Q

evaluation of misleading information affecting eyewitness testimony

A
  • real life application : +ve difference improving legal systems
  • consequences of EWT: very important in real world less so in studies. likely to give different answers
  • use clips that lack stress and emotion of real life. so use of artificial tasks with lower application
  • individual differences: older people less accurate
  • demand characteristics: guess questions they do not know as they want to be helpful.
57
Q

eye witness testimony EWT

A

ability of people to remember details of events. accuracy affected by different aspects

58
Q

Jhonson and scott

A
  • negative effect of anxiety on recall
    while in waiting room participants heard an argument
    1. carry out a pen grease on hands (low anxiety)
    2. sound of breaking glass bloody knife ( high arousal)
    participants then picked out the man from a set of 50 photos
    1. 49% identification
    2. 33% identification
    tunnel theory
59
Q

tunnel theory of memory

A

a witness attention narrows to focus on the weapon because it is the source of anxiety

60
Q

why may anxiety produce worse recall

A

emotional and physical effects

anxiety creates physiological arousal which prevents us paying attention to important cues, recall is worse.

61
Q

Yuille and cutshal

A

anxiety has a positive effect on recall
- real life shooting in gun shop where owner shot a thief dead
- 13 witnesses interviewed 4-5 months later. accuracy determined by no. of details reported.
rate of how stressed they felt and emotional problems since
accuracy changed little after 5 months some details were less accurate.
participants who reported highest levels of stress were more accurate.

62
Q

why may anxiety produce better recall

A

the stress of witnessing a crime creates anxiety
fight or flight response triggered
this increases our alertness and improves our memory because we are more aware of cues in the situation

63
Q

inverted u theory of anxiety on accurate recall

A
  • lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of accuracy
  • memory becomes more accurate as levels of anxiety experienced increases
  • point were optimum anxiety is reached most accurate
    after this point accuracy falls
64
Q

evaluation of factors affecting eyewitness testimony: anxiety

A
  1. weapon focus not relevant: test of surprise accuracy poorer due to surprise
  2. demand characteristics: aware watching a staged crime work out being asked questions give useful responses. validity
  3. inverted u too simplistic: anxiety difficult to measure as has many elements. assumes cognitive links to poor performance. does not account for others ( behavioural, emotional, psychical)
  4. field studies lack control:long time between. extraneous variables occur during this time may be responsible for accuracy fall.
  5. ethical issues: creating anxiety in subjects does not protect them from psychological harm. real life studies are better.
65
Q

who designed the cognitive interview

A

fisher and geiselem

66
Q

parts of the cognitive interview (4)

A
  1. report everything: trival detail may trigger other important details
  2. reinstate context: related to context dependent forgetting
  3. reverse the order: avoid dishonesty and reporting of expectations of how the event must have happened
  4. change perspective: disrupts the effect of expectations and schema
67
Q

enhanced cognitive interview ECI

A

fisher et al
additional elements focus on social dynamics
interviewer needs to know when to make eye contact
ideas to reduce anxiety, minimising distractions, speaking slowly and asking openended questions.

68
Q

evaluation of the cognitive interview

A
  1. time consuming: police are reluctant to use. and it requires special training
  2. some elements more valuable: combining report everything and context reinstatement produces better recall increasing credibility.
  3. support for effectiveness: meta analysis ECI consistently provided more correct information. practical benefit
  4. variations of CI: studies of effectiveness use different techniques making it difficult to draw conclusions
  5. CI increases inaccurate info: as well as correct 81% increase in info but a 61% increase in incorrect information.

Psychology A level (15 decks)

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