Research Methods Flashcards
What is the purpose of a psychological study?
To establish a cause-effect relationship.
Define independent variable
The factor manipulated by the researcher
Define dependent variable
The factor measured by the researcher in an investigation.
Define extraneous variables
Variables other than the IV that could influence the DV and therefore the results of the study.
Define confounding variables
Uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect results
What are the 4 types of experimental methods?
Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that occurs in an artificial setting allowing the establishment of causality.
What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment? (2)
- Easy to replicate
- Extraneous variables can be easily controlled.
What are the weaknesses of a laboratory experiment?
The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour
What is a field experiment?
Research in a natural setting with the IV still manipulated by the researcher.
What are the strengths of a field experiment? (2)
- Behaviour is more likely to reflect real life
- There is less likelihood of demand characteristics
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
- There is less control over extraneous variables
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment conducted in the everyday environment of the participants, but there is no control over the IV
What are the strengths of field experiments? (3)
- More likely to reflect real life behaviour
- Less likely for demand characteristics
- Can be used if it is unethical to manipulate the IV
What are the weaknesses of a natural experiment? (2)
- Can be more expensive and time consuming
- No control over extraneous variables
What is a quasi experiment?
An experiment where the researcher is unable to freely manipulate the IV and is unable to randomly allocate participants to the different conditions due to a simple difference E.G-gender
What are the strengths of a quasi experiment? (2)
- Less likely for demand characteristics
- Can be used if it is unethical to directly manipulate the IV
What are the weaknesses of a quasi experiment?
- Can be more expensive and time consuming
- No control over extraneous variables
Define ecological validity
Refers to the ability of a psychological study to generalise a research finding beyond the particular setting in which it was demonstrated.
Define demand characteristics
Features of a study that provides cues to the participants about the aim of the study and this will often cause participants to unknowingly change their behaviour.
Define investigators effects
A research effect where the researchers features influence participants responses. These features can be physical such as age, gender and ethnicity.
What is correlational analysis?
A statistical technique which assesses the strength and direction of relationship between two co-variables.
Define naturalistic observation
Surveillance and recording of a naturally occurring event.
Define controlled observation
Surveillance and recording in a controlled environment, where the researcher decides where and when the observation will take place.
Define covert observation
Participants are unaware of being observed
Define overt observation
Participants are aware of being observed
Define participant observation
Researcher becomes actively involved in the behaviour being studied
Define non-participant observation
Researcher observes externally and remaining inactive in the behaviour being studied.
What are the strengths of a naturalistic observation? (2)
- High ecological validity (natural environment reflects natural behaviour and can be generalised to others in the target population)
- Low demand characteristics
What are the weaknesses of a naturalistic observation? (2)
- Conducted on a micro scale and can lack a representative sample
- Difficult to replicate
What are the strengths of a controlled observation? (2)
- Easily replicated
- Data obtained is quantitative which is less time consuming to analyse
What are the weaknesses of a controlled observation?
Lack validity due to Hawthorne effect and demand characteristics
What are the strengths of a covert observation? (2)
- Few demand characteristics
- Few investigators effects.
What are the weaknesses of a covert observation? (2)
- Can be considered unethical
- Cannot be exactly replicated
What are the strengths of an overt observation?
More ethical than covert observations
What are the weaknesses of an overt observation? (2)
- Demand characteristics and investigators effects
- Cannot be exactly replicated
What are the strengths of a participant observation? (2)
- Validity: produces rich qualitative data
- Practical advantages for studying the behaviour of suspicious groups.
What are the weaknesses of a participant observation? (2)
- It can be difficult to get time to record your results
- If the researcher get too involved they can lose objectivity
What are the strengths of a non participant observation?
Researcher is not at risk from dangerous behaviour
What are the weaknesses of a non participant observation? (2)
- There is little control over extraneous variables
- Cannot be easily replicated.
Define self report technique
Participants giving information about themselves without researcher interference.
What is a questionnaire?
A self report method where participants record their own answers to a preset list of questions.
What are interviews?
A self report method where participants answer questions with the researcher present.
Define social desirability bias
When participants lie about themselves or modify information in order to present themselves in the most ‘socially desirable’ way.
What are the strengths of a questionnaire? (2)
- Can obtain many participants quickly
- Less social desirability if it’s anonymous
What are the weaknesses of a questionnaire? (2)
- Researcher is absent and is unable to clarify questions.
- Risk of low response
What are the strengths of an interview? (2)
- In-depth information can be obtained
- Report can be made
What are the weaknesses of an interview? (2)
- High risk of social desirability bias
- Time consuming
Define aim
A precise statement of why a study is taking place.
Define hypothesis
Precise testable research prediction.
What is a directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis explaining a specific change.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A hypothesis that has an ambiguous change and does not specify the direction of change
Define operationalisation
The process of defining variables into measurable factors.
What is the difference between correlation all study and experiments?
In an experiment the experimenter manipulates the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent variable, but a correlation all study is where the psychologist is trying to see whether two variables are linked.
What is random sampling?
Each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.
What are the strengths of random sampling?
Unbiased selection
Generalisation : results will be generalisable to the target population.
What are the weaknesses of random sampling?
Impractical: random sampling can be difficult if you don’t know the full details of the target population.
Not representative: a certain group could all be selected, for example all females could be randomly selected.
What is opportunity sampling?
Selecting participants who are available and willing to take part at the time and place in which the study is taking place.
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
Ease of formation
Useful for natural experiments
What are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
Unrepresentative
Self-selection : participants have the option to decline to take part, thus it is a self-selected sample.
What is volunteer sampling?
People volunteering to participate
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
Ease of formation
Less chance of ‘screw you’ effect as pps are eager to take part
What are the weaknesses of volunteer sampling?
Unrepresentative as volunteers tend to be a certain ‘type’ of person
Chances of Demand characteristics are increased as pps are eager to take part
What is systematic sampling?
Using every nth person from a sampling frame to create a sample
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
Unbiased selection
Representativeness is likely as characteristics are unlikely to repeat for every nth person
What are the weaknesses of systematic sampling?
The process of selection can interact with Periodic traits hidden within the population, if selection coincides with the frequency of the traits the sample becomes making non representative
What is stratified sampling?
Small-scale reproduction of a population by dividing it into characteristics important to research. The. The population is randomly sampled within each stratum
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
Representative
Unbiased
What are the weaknesses of stratified sampling?
Knowledge of population characteristics required.
What are pilot studies?
Small-scale practice investigations carried out prior to research, to identify potential problems so they can be fixed.
What is independent groups design?
Experimental design in which each participant performs one condition of an experiment
What are the strengths of independent groups design?
No order effects
Less likely chance demand characteristics will occur as pps do one condition and have less chance to guess the purpose of the study
Less time consuming as both groups can perform both conditions at the same time
What are the weaknesses of independent groups design?
More participants needed
Group/individual differences, causal factors may be a result of participant variables rather than manipulation of IV
What is repeated measures design?
Experimental design where each participant performs all conditions of an experiment.
What are the strengths of repeated measures design?
No group differences
Fewer participants needed
What are the weaknesses of repeated measures design?
Order effects (overcome by counterbalancing) More likely for demand characteristics to occur Takes more time
What is matched pairs design?
Experimental design where participants are in similar pairs, with one of each pair performing each condition.
What are the strengths of matched pairs design?
No order effects
Less chance of demand characteristics
Less chance of group differences
What are the weaknesses of matched pairs design?
It is impossible to match all variables between pps and unmatched variables Amy be vitally important
Time consuming to match participants
What are ethical issues?
The rules governing the conduct of researchers in investigations
What are the code of ethics made by the BPS?
Informed consent Avoidance of deception Adequate briefing & debriefing Protection from harm Confidentiality & anonymity No incentives to take part Right to withdraw
How can the use of deception be overcome in an ethical manner?
Getting presumptive, prior or retrospective consent
Debriefing
What are the implications of psychological research on the economy?
Development of effective therapies reduce absenteeism, meaning more people working and contributing to the economy. Effective therapies also reduce the strains on health services as less money is spent on hospital visits, etc…
Define reliability
The extent to which a test or measurement produces consistent results
What is internal reliability?
Concerns the extent to which something is consistent within itself
What is external reliability?
Concerns the extent to which a test measures consistently over time
How is reliability assessed?
Split-half method measures internal reliability by splitting a test into two and having the same participants do both halves. If both halves provide similar results indicate internal reliability .
Test-retest method measures external reliability by giving the same test to the same pps on 2 occasions. If the same result is obtained then external reliability is established.
What is interrater reliability?
The extent to which different observers are viewing and rating behaviour in the same way
How is interrater reliability assesed?
Conducting a correlation of all observers scores, with high correlation indicating they are consistent
How is interrater reliability improved?
Developing clearly defined and separate categories of observational criteria
What is validity?
The extent to which results accurately measure what they are supposed to measure
