Approaches In Psychology

Question 1

What is structuralism and who was it introduced by?

Answer 1

Wundt studied structuralism, the idea that consciousness could be studied through its structure. The aim of structuralism was to break Down and isolate the constituents of consciousness.

Question 2

Define introspection.

Answer 2

A technique used by Wundt to gain insight into how mental processes work by asking participants/patients to examine their own thoughts, feelings and sensations when presented with a stimulus such as problem solving.

Question 3

What 4 assumptions does the behaviourist approach make?

Answer 3

• Behaviour is learned through experience
• only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically, but thought processes are subjective and difficult to test.
• it is valid to study the behaviour of animals as they share the same principles of learning
• according to the behaviourist approach we are born a blank slate, so there is no genetic influence on behaviour.

Question 4

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 4

Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a particular response.

Question 5

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 5

Individuals learn from the consequences of their actions, which can be positively or negatively reinforced.

Question 6

In classical conditioning what is stimulus generalisation?

Answer 6

Associations are made to other stimuli which are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Question 7

In classical conditioning, what is stimulus discrimination?

Answer 7

This refers to the cut off point where stimulus generalisation will no longer occur because the characteristics of the stimuli are too different to the conditioned stimulus for generalisation to occur.

Question 8

In classical conditioning, what is time contiguity?

Answer 8

Associations will only be made if the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time or in close succession to each other.

Question 9

What are the 5 types of reinforcement?

Answer 9

Continuous
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio

Question 10

What is continuous reinforcement?

Answer 10

Every single response is reinforced.

Question 11

What is fixed interval reinforcement?

Answer 11

A reward is given following a response, but only after a certain time interval has passed.

Question 12

What is variable interval reinforcement?

Answer 12

A reinforcement is given on average every interval, but the interval varies from trial to trial.

Question 13

what is fixed ratio reinforcement?

Answer 13

A reinforcement is given after a certain amount of responses.

Question 14

What is variable ratio reinforcement?

Answer 14

A reinforcement is given after the average certain amount of responses, but varies from trial to trial.

Question 15

What was the aim of Skinners box for rats?

Answer 15

To observe animal response in artificial situations.

Question 16

What was the procedure of Skinners box for rats?

Answer 16

Rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute so that the rat could eat it

Question 17

Define imitation

Answer 17

When an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and simulate it.

Question 18

Define identification

Answer 18

When an individual is influenced by another in order to gain acceptance

Question 19

What is vicarious reinforcement

Answer 19

When a person learns by observing the consequences of a role models behaviour

Question 20

What are the mediational processes

Answer 20

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

Question 21

What are the 2 assumptions made by the social learning theory?

Answer 21

Behaviour is learned from the environment

Behaviour is based on observing others and the reinforcement they receive

Question 22

What was the aim of Bandura’s bobo doll study?

Answer 22

To examine the effect of continual influence of a role model.

Question 23

What was the procedure used in bandura’s bobo doll study?

Answer 23

72 children were divided into 3 groups containing 24 each. The groups either had an aggressive, non-aggressive role model or no role model. There were 3 stages: observing the role model (for 10 mins), mild aggression arousal (shown into room with toys prohibited to play with), test for delayed imitation (shown into room with bobo doll & toy weapons).

Question 24

What were the results of Bandura’s bobo doll study?

Answer 24

Children with an aggressive role model acted more aggressively with the bobo doll.

Question 25

What were the conclusions of Bandura’s bobo doll study?

Answer 25

There is a behavioural effect from observing a models behaviour and it continues after a delay. Therefore, the social learning theory is supported in arguing behaviour is influenced through imitation.

Question 26

What are the strengths of Bandura’s bobo doll study?

Answer 26

Standardised procedure makes it reliable and replicable | All variables were controlled and therefore a cause-effect relationship was established

Question 27

What were the weaknesses of Bandura’s bobo doll study?

Answer 27

Low ecological validity-the procedure included children with an adult model, limiting social situations that the findings can be applied to. The demonstrations are measured within a short time and therefore, we cannot establish any long term effects.

Question 28

What are the strengths of the social learning theory?

Answer 28

SLT takes cognitive process into account. | The approach successfully explains the initiation of certain behaviours.

Question 29

What are the criticisms of social learning theory?

Answer 29

It’s not a full explanation as it doesn’t explain behaviours when there is no apparent role model. Social learning theorists use a variety of research methods reducing reliability in their work.

Question 30

What are the assumptions made by the cognitive approach?

Answer 30

Thought processes can be studied scientifically | The mind works like a computer

Question 31

Define schema

Answer 31

A cognitive framework of ideas about a person or situation formed through experience which helps an individual to understand and predict the world around them.

Question 32

What is the information-processing model?

Answer 32

A theoretical model that has a 3 stage process which is argued to explain behaviour. Stage 1: input comes from the environment via the senses and encoded by the individual. Stage 2: processing the info using schemas. Stage 3: output, the behavioural response.

Question 33

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?

Answer 33

Acknowledges thought processes influencing behaviour Uses experimental methods, high in reliability Effective at explaining thought processes leading to treatment such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

Question 34

What are the criticisms of the cognitive approach?

Answer 34

The use of theoretical models oversimplifies complex processes Use of laboratory experiments reduces the validity of their research.

Question 35

What is cognitive neuroscience and how has it emerged?

Answer 35

A discipline that is a combination of cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Its main focus is to look for a biological basis to thought processes. It has emerged from advancements in technology, as scanning machines have improved, so has the ability to investigate how neurone/brain activity underpins thought.

Question 36

What are the techniques used by cognitive neuroscientists to scan the brain?

Answer 36

Electroencephalography (EEG) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Computer aided tomography scans (CAT scans) Position emission tomography scans (PET scans)

Question 37

What are the assumptions made by the biological approach?

Answer 37

Genes influence behaviour The central nervous system influences how an individual perceives and responds to the world The chemistry of the body influences reactions to environments.

Question 38

Define genotype

Answer 38

The genetic make-up of an individual

Question 39

Define phenotype

Answer 39

The characteristics shown by a person that have occurred because of their genes and the environment

Question 40

How does the biological approach investigate the genetic basis of behaviour?

Answer 40

Psychologists study twins. Monozygotic twins (identical) are 100% genetically similar, the likelihood of them both sharing a behaviour compared to dizygotic twins (non-identical) gives an indication of how much a behaviour may be genetic.

Question 41

What are concordance rates?

Answer 41

The presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins.

Question 42

How does evolutionary theory determine what behaviour is selected to be passed on to the next generation?

Answer 42

Naturally selected behaviours are behaviours that improve survival rates. Sexually selected behaviours are behaviours that improve chance of reproduction.

Question 43

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

Answer 43

Scientific methods=reliable & objective Bio psychology research has led to practical applications such as the development of drugs to treat psychological disorders.

Question 44

What are the criticisms of the biological approach?

Answer 44

Fails to acknowledge the environment in behaviour | Simplifies the complexity of behaviour by arguing it is down to nature.

Question 45

What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 45

Assumes behaviour is affected by unconscious motives. Behaviour is rooted from childhood experiences. All behaviour is determined.

Question 46

Define the preconscious

Answer 46

The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness

Question 47

Define conscious

Answer 47

Consists of all the mental processes of which we are aware

Question 48

Define the unconscious

Answer 48

The unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness but that influence judgements, feelings, or behaviour.

Question 49

In what ways, according to Freud, does the unconscious reveal its motives?

Answer 49

Dreams | Slips of the tongue

Question 50

What is the structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 50

The psychodynamic approach argues the personality is made up of 3 parts: the id, ego and superego

Question 51

What is the Id?

Answer 51

The part of the personality that seeks pleasure. It is formed at birth and is the selfish and hedonistic part of your personality, which focuses on the self.

Question 52

What is the ego?

Answer 52

The part of the personality that delays gratification and balances the demands of the Id and superego.

Question 53

What is the superego?

Answer 53

The part of the personality that acts as an individuals conscience. Develops between ages of 3 and 6 years. The superego feels guilt and stops any behaviour if it is thought to be wrong.

Question 54

What happens if the ego is unable to balance the Id and superego and one of them becomes a dominant influence?

Answer 54

When the Id or superego become a dominant force over the other this can lead to abnormality and can adversely affect the behaviour and mental health of an individual.

Question 55

What are defence mechanisms?

Answer 55

A strategy to reduce anxiety

Question 56

What is repression?

Answer 56

A defence mechanism in which highly emotional and unpleasant thoughts are buried deep in the unconscious mind.

Question 57

What is denial?

Answer 57

A defence mechanism in which an individual refuses to accept the reality of a situation.

Question 58

What is displacement?

Answer 58

A defence mechanism in which a strong emotion is displaced (transferred) from its target onto a neutral object or person

Question 59

What are psychosexual stages?

Answer 59

A series of stages that every individual develops through, from birth to puberty.

Question 60

What are the 5 psychosexual stages according to Freud?

Answer 60

Oral - receiving gratification from the mouth Anal - pleasure is gained from defecating Phallic - Oedipus and Electra complexes are experienced Latency - libido calms down Genital - focus on genitals

Question 61

What is fixation?

Answer 61

If a conflict is experienced during one of the psychosexual stages, the personality becomes affected.

Question 62

What are the two divisions of the anal stage? What happens if a fixation occurs at this stage?

Answer 62

Expulsive (loved using the potty) - fixation can lead to overly generous behaviour and demonstrates negative emotions through fits of anger. Retentive (anxious using the potty) - fixation can lead to highly organised and reluctant to spend money.

Question 63

What is the Oedipus complex?

Answer 63

Young boys experience intense sexual feelings for their mother during the phallic stage. However, his father is seen as a sexual rival and boys fear that the father could possibly castrate him. This leads to castration anxiety. In order to combat this anxiety, boys imitate their fathers behaviour (identification). The Oedipus complex is argued to be resolved once identification occurs.

Question 64

What is the Electra complex?

Answer 64

Young girls experience the realisation that they do not have a penis. They then develop penis envy of males and begin to develop sexual desires for their fathers. However, when girls desire for a penis is unfulfilled it is replaced with the desire for a baby and begin to identify with their mothers and resolve their Electra complex.

Question 65

What are the two divisions of the oral stage? How does this effect adult behaviour once fixated?

Answer 65

Orally passive Orally aggressive Fixation can lead to smoking, chewing pens, biting finger nails. Orally aggressive individuals can be particularly verbally aggressive.

Question 66

What is argued to happen when children are fixated at the phallic stage?

Answer 66

In families with single parents, their may be no same sex parent to identify with to resolve the complex. Therefore, it is argued that an unresolved complex causes children to grow up homosexual. However, there is no evidence for this.

Question 67

What was the case study of little Hans?

Answer 67

Hans was a five year old boy with a phobia of horses. Hans had shown a fascination for his penis which Freud suggested was a sign of Hans being in the phallic stage of development. Hans also had dreams about horses with black bits around its mouth. Freud believed that the horse was a symbol for his father, and the black bits were a moustache. Hans also enjoyed his mother’s attention and began resenting his fathers presence. This was argued to be evidence for the Oedipus complex and castration anxiety.

Question 68

Evaluate the case study of little Hans

Answer 68

Freud published his ideas of the psychosexual stages prior to the study and therefore could have been looking for evidence to support his ideas rather than through unbiased eyes. Hans had seen a horse collapse in the street, behaviourists thus argue he had been conditioned for his phobia. Case studies are unreliable and cannot be generalised

Question 69

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 69

Freud’s ideas have led to effective talking therapies and psychoanalysis suggesting psychodynamic ideas have some validity Case study of Little Hans

Question 70

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 70

There is no empirical evidence for Freud’s idea such as the unconscious. Case studies that support the psychodynamic approach are unreliable and unrepresentative. Reductionist - simplifies complex concepts such as the unconscious and childhood

Question 71

What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 71

Every individual is unique Free will People should be viewed holistically The scientific method is not appropriate to study behaviour

Question 72

Define self-actualisation

Answer 72

peak state of existence that any individual can attain. It is the ultimate feeling of well-being, satisfaction and ‘completeness’.

Question 73

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 73

Five basic needs a person needs to meet are physiological, safety , belonging, self esteem and self-actualisation. They arise in that order and if the fist need is not met then all the other needs cannot be fulfilled. Maslow claims the state of self-actualisation is not permanent and if all the 5 needs do not remain in place, the individual cannot self actualise until all the needs are back in place.

Question 74

What is Rodgers theory of the self?

Answer 74

The self concept is the way you see yourself, the ideal self is the self you wish to be, and the real self is who you actually are. Rogers argues to reach self-actualisation an individual must be congruent in which the self concept and the real self are the same or very similar.

Question 75

What does Roger claim is needed for congruence to be achieved?

Answer 75

Unconditional positive regard. This means that at some point in their lives someone has to be loved for who they are by someone else. This unconditional positive regard can come from parents, other family members, friends or partners.

Question 76

What are conditions of worth?

Answer 76

Requirements that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved. Conditions of worth can be real or perceived by the individual. It is argued that if an individual feels conditions of worth they are unable to self-actualise.

Question 77

What influence has the humanistic approach had on counselling?

Answer 77

Rogers developed a client-centred therapy. This is important as the client-therapist relationship can ensure the client feels unconditional positive regard. This also encourages total honest as individuals will feel accepted and comfortable. This honesty will allow them to realise any potential barriers to becoming congruent.

Question 78

What are the strengths of humanistic approach?

Answer 78

Led to effective Client-centred therapies Acknowledges free will Allows individuals to be able to change Holistic

Question 79

What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach?

Answer 79

No empirical evidence It is difficult to measure humanistic concepts such as free will and self-actualisation Culture-specific - humanistic focuses on self ignoring collectivist culture