Approaches In Psychology Flashcards
What is structuralism and who was it introduced by?
Wundt studied structuralism, the idea that consciousness could be studied through its structure. The aim of structuralism was to break Down and isolate the constituents of consciousness.
Define introspection.
A technique used by Wundt to gain insight into how mental processes work by asking participants/patients to examine their own thoughts, feelings and sensations when presented with a stimulus such as problem solving.
What 4 assumptions does the behaviourist approach make?
- Behaviour is learned through experience
- only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically, but thought processes are subjective and difficult to test.
- it is valid to study the behaviour of animals as they share the same principles of learning
- according to the behaviourist approach we are born a blank slate, so there is no genetic influence on behaviour.
What is classical conditioning?
Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a particular response.
What is operant conditioning?
Individuals learn from the consequences of their actions, which can be positively or negatively reinforced.
In classical conditioning what is stimulus generalisation?
Associations are made to other stimuli which are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
In classical conditioning, what is stimulus discrimination?
This refers to the cut off point where stimulus generalisation will no longer occur because the characteristics of the stimuli are too different to the conditioned stimulus for generalisation to occur.
In classical conditioning, what is time contiguity?
Associations will only be made if the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time or in close succession to each other.
What are the 5 types of reinforcement?
Continuous Fixed interval Variable interval Fixed ratio Variable ratio
What is continuous reinforcement?
Every single response is reinforced.
What is fixed interval reinforcement?
A reward is given following a response, but only after a certain time interval has passed.
What is variable interval reinforcement?
A reinforcement is given on average every interval, but the interval varies from trial to trial.
what is fixed ratio reinforcement?
A reinforcement is given after a certain amount of responses.
What is variable ratio reinforcement?
A reinforcement is given after the average certain amount of responses, but varies from trial to trial.
What was the aim of Skinners box for rats?
To observe animal response in artificial situations.
What was the procedure of Skinners box for rats?
Rats contained a response lever which could prompt the release of a pellet down a chute so that the rat could eat it
Define imitation
When an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and simulate it.
Define identification
When an individual is influenced by another in order to gain acceptance
What is vicarious reinforcement
When a person learns by observing the consequences of a role models behaviour
What are the mediational processes
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
What are the 2 assumptions made by the social learning theory?
Behaviour is learned from the environment
Behaviour is based on observing others and the reinforcement they receive
What was the aim of Bandura’s bobo doll study?
To examine the effect of continual influence of a role model.
What was the procedure used in bandura’s bobo doll study?
72 children were divided into 3 groups containing 24 each. The groups either had an aggressive, non-aggressive role model or no role model. There were 3 stages: observing the role model (for 10 mins), mild aggression arousal (shown into room with toys prohibited to play with), test for delayed imitation (shown into room with bobo doll & toy weapons).
What were the results of Bandura’s bobo doll study?
Children with an aggressive role model acted more aggressively with the bobo doll.
What were the conclusions of Bandura’s bobo doll study?
There is a behavioural effect from observing a models behaviour and it continues after a delay. Therefore, the social learning theory is supported in arguing behaviour is influenced through imitation.
What are the strengths of Bandura’s bobo doll study?
Standardised procedure makes it reliable and replicable
All variables were controlled and therefore a cause-effect relationship was established
What were the weaknesses of Bandura’s bobo doll study?
Low ecological validity-the procedure included children with an adult model, limiting social situations that the findings can be applied to.
The demonstrations are measured within a short time and therefore, we cannot establish any long term effects.
What are the strengths of the social learning theory?
SLT takes cognitive process into account.
The approach successfully explains the initiation of certain behaviours.
What are the criticisms of social learning theory?
It’s not a full explanation as it doesn’t explain behaviours when there is no apparent role model.
Social learning theorists use a variety of research methods reducing reliability in their work.
What are the assumptions made by the cognitive approach?
Thought processes can be studied scientifically
The mind works like a computer
Define schema
A cognitive framework of ideas about a person or situation formed through experience which helps an individual to understand and predict the world around them.
What is the information-processing model?
A theoretical model that has a 3 stage process which is argued to explain behaviour. Stage 1: input comes from the environment via the senses and encoded by the individual. Stage 2: processing the info using schemas. Stage 3: output, the behavioural response.
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?
Acknowledges thought processes influencing behaviour
Uses experimental methods, high in reliability
Effective at explaining thought processes leading to treatment such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
What are the criticisms of the cognitive approach?
The use of theoretical models oversimplifies complex processes
Use of laboratory experiments reduces the validity of their research.
What is cognitive neuroscience and how has it emerged?
A discipline that is a combination of cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Its main focus is to look for a biological basis to thought processes. It has emerged from advancements in technology, as scanning machines have improved, so has the ability to investigate how neurone/brain activity underpins thought.
What are the techniques used by cognitive neuroscientists to scan the brain?
Electroencephalography (EEG)
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Computer aided tomography scans (CAT scans)
Position emission tomography scans (PET scans)
What are the assumptions made by the biological approach?
Genes influence behaviour
The central nervous system influences how an individual perceives and responds to the world
The chemistry of the body influences reactions to environments.
Define genotype
The genetic make-up of an individual
Define phenotype
The characteristics shown by a person that have occurred because of their genes and the environment
How does the biological approach investigate the genetic basis of behaviour?
Psychologists study twins. Monozygotic twins (identical) are 100% genetically similar, the likelihood of them both sharing a behaviour compared to dizygotic twins (non-identical) gives an indication of how much a behaviour may be genetic.
What are concordance rates?
The presence of the same trait in both members of a pair of twins.
How does evolutionary theory determine what behaviour is selected to be passed on to the next generation?
Naturally selected behaviours are behaviours that improve survival rates. Sexually selected behaviours are behaviours that improve chance of reproduction.
What are the strengths of the biological approach?
Scientific methods=reliable & objective
Bio psychology research has led to practical applications such as the development of drugs to treat psychological disorders.
What are the criticisms of the biological approach?
Fails to acknowledge the environment in behaviour
Simplifies the complexity of behaviour by arguing it is down to nature.
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
Assumes behaviour is affected by unconscious motives.
Behaviour is rooted from childhood experiences.
All behaviour is determined.
Define the preconscious
The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness
Define conscious
Consists of all the mental processes of which we are aware
Define the unconscious
The unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness but that influence judgements, feelings, or behaviour.
In what ways, according to Freud, does the unconscious reveal its motives?
Dreams
Slips of the tongue
What is the structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach?
The psychodynamic approach argues the personality is made up of 3 parts: the id, ego and superego
What is the Id?
The part of the personality that seeks pleasure. It is formed at birth and is the selfish and hedonistic part of your personality, which focuses on the self.
What is the ego?
The part of the personality that delays gratification and balances the demands of the Id and superego.
What is the superego?
The part of the personality that acts as an individuals conscience. Develops between ages of 3 and 6 years. The superego feels guilt and stops any behaviour if it is thought to be wrong.
What happens if the ego is unable to balance the Id and superego and one of them becomes a dominant influence?
When the Id or superego become a dominant force over the other this can lead to abnormality and can adversely affect the behaviour and mental health of an individual.
What are defence mechanisms?
A strategy to reduce anxiety
What is repression?
A defence mechanism in which highly emotional and unpleasant thoughts are buried deep in the unconscious mind.
What is denial?
A defence mechanism in which an individual refuses to accept the reality of a situation.
What is displacement?
A defence mechanism in which a strong emotion is displaced (transferred) from its target onto a neutral object or person
What are psychosexual stages?
A series of stages that every individual develops through, from birth to puberty.
What are the 5 psychosexual stages according to Freud?
Oral - receiving gratification from the mouth
Anal - pleasure is gained from defecating
Phallic - Oedipus and Electra complexes are experienced
Latency - libido calms down
Genital - focus on genitals
What is fixation?
If a conflict is experienced during one of the psychosexual stages, the personality becomes affected.
What are the two divisions of the anal stage? What happens if a fixation occurs at this stage?
Expulsive (loved using the potty) - fixation can lead to overly generous behaviour and demonstrates negative emotions through fits of anger.
Retentive (anxious using the potty) - fixation can lead to highly organised and reluctant to spend money.
What is the Oedipus complex?
Young boys experience intense sexual feelings for their mother during the phallic stage. However, his father is seen as a sexual rival and boys fear that the father could possibly castrate him. This leads to castration anxiety. In order to combat this anxiety, boys imitate their fathers behaviour (identification). The Oedipus complex is argued to be resolved once identification occurs.
What is the Electra complex?
Young girls experience the realisation that they do not have a penis. They then develop penis envy of males and begin to develop sexual desires for their fathers. However, when girls desire for a penis is unfulfilled it is replaced with the desire for a baby and begin to identify with their mothers and resolve their Electra complex.
What are the two divisions of the oral stage? How does this effect adult behaviour once fixated?
Orally passive
Orally aggressive
Fixation can lead to smoking, chewing pens, biting finger nails. Orally aggressive individuals can be particularly verbally aggressive.
What is argued to happen when children are fixated at the phallic stage?
In families with single parents, their may be no same sex parent to identify with to resolve the complex. Therefore, it is argued that an unresolved complex causes children to grow up homosexual. However, there is no evidence for this.
What was the case study of little Hans?
Hans was a five year old boy with a phobia of horses. Hans had shown a fascination for his penis which Freud suggested was a sign of Hans being in the phallic stage of development. Hans also had dreams about horses with black bits around its mouth. Freud believed that the horse was a symbol for his father, and the black bits were a moustache. Hans also enjoyed his mother’s attention and began resenting his fathers presence. This was argued to be evidence for the Oedipus complex and castration anxiety.
Evaluate the case study of little Hans
Freud published his ideas of the psychosexual stages prior to the study and therefore could have been looking for evidence to support his ideas rather than through unbiased eyes.
Hans had seen a horse collapse in the street, behaviourists thus argue he had been conditioned for his phobia.
Case studies are unreliable and cannot be generalised
What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
Freud’s ideas have led to effective talking therapies and psychoanalysis suggesting psychodynamic ideas have some validity
Case study of Little Hans
What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach?
There is no empirical evidence for Freud’s idea such as the unconscious.
Case studies that support the psychodynamic approach are unreliable and unrepresentative.
Reductionist - simplifies complex concepts such as the unconscious and childhood
What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?
Every individual is unique
Free will
People should be viewed holistically
The scientific method is not appropriate to study behaviour
Define self-actualisation
peak state of existence that any individual can attain. It is the ultimate feeling of well-being, satisfaction and ‘completeness’.
Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Five basic needs a person needs to meet are physiological, safety , belonging, self esteem and self-actualisation. They arise in that order and if the fist need is not met then all the other needs cannot be fulfilled. Maslow claims the state of self-actualisation is not permanent and if all the 5 needs do not remain in place, the individual cannot self actualise until all the needs are back in place.
What is Rodgers theory of the self?
The self concept is the way you see yourself, the ideal self is the self you wish to be, and the real self is who you actually are. Rogers argues to reach self-actualisation an individual must be congruent in which the self concept and the real self are the same or very similar.
What does Roger claim is needed for congruence to be achieved?
Unconditional positive regard. This means that at some point in their lives someone has to be loved for who they are by someone else. This unconditional positive regard can come from parents, other family members, friends or partners.
What are conditions of worth?
Requirements that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved. Conditions of worth can be real or perceived by the individual. It is argued that if an individual feels conditions of worth they are unable to self-actualise.
What influence has the humanistic approach had on counselling?
Rogers developed a client-centred therapy. This is important as the client-therapist relationship can ensure the client feels unconditional positive regard. This also encourages total honest as individuals will feel accepted and comfortable. This honesty will allow them to realise any potential barriers to becoming congruent.
What are the strengths of humanistic approach?
Led to effective Client-centred therapies
Acknowledges free will
Allows individuals to be able to change
Holistic
What are the weaknesses of the humanistic approach?
No empirical evidence
It is difficult to measure humanistic concepts such as free will and self-actualisation
Culture-specific - humanistic focuses on self ignoring collectivist culture
