Cognition and Development

Question 1

Define schema

Answer 1

A Cognitive framework which are used to understand the world

Question 2

Define operations

Answer 2

Strings of schemas assembled in a logical order

Question 3

What are functional invariants?

Answer 3

Structures that are the same throughout the developmental process such as the process of adaptation and equilibration

Question 4

What are variant structures?

Answer 4

Structures that change as knowledge is discovered such as schemas and operations

Question 5

Define assimilation

Answer 5

Fitting new environmental experiences/information into existing schemas

Question 6

Define accommodation

Answer 6

Altering existing schemas to fit new experiences

Question 7

Define equilibrium

Answer 7

A pleasant state of balance

Question 8

Define disequilibrium

Answer 8

Unpleasant state of imbalance that motivates a return to equilibrium

Question 9

Outline the process of adaptation

Answer 9

New experience
Assimilation
Disequilibrium
Accommodation 
Equilibrium

Question 10

What are Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development?

Answer 10

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Pre-operational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-11)
Formal operational (11+)

Question 11

What occurs in the sensorimotor stage?

Answer 11

Infants go through 4 stages innate reflexes, followed by primary circular reactions (deliberately repeating pleasurable actions), secondary circular reactions (deliberately repeating actions that trigger responses from the environment), coordinating reactions, tertiary circular reactions (trial and error), early symbolic representation and acquire object permanence,

Question 12

What occurs in the pre-operational stage?

Answer 12

2 sub stages -
Pre-conceptual : centration, transductive reasoning, animism
Intuitive : egocentric speech and the development of conservation

Question 13

What is conservation?

Answer 13

An understanding that changing the appearance of something does not affect its mass, number or volume

Question 14

What is centration?

Answer 14

The inability to classify things in a logical manner

Question 15

What is transductive reasoning?

Answer 15

When relationships between two objects are based on a single attribute such as horse and dog being grouped as the same animal because they both have 4 legs.

Question 16

What is animism?

Answer 16

The belief that inanimate objects are alive and have thoughts and feelings

Question 17

What occurs in the concrete operational stage?

Answer 17

The development of operations (strings of schemas in a logical order). However, operations can only be done if objects in question are physically present, hence ‘concrete’.
Decentring (movement away from egocentrism where children can see things from the viewpoint of others)
Development of Class inclusion (an understanding that some sets of objects (subordinate objects) can be sets of larger classes of objects (superordinate))

Question 18

What occurs in formal operational stage?

Answer 18

Second order operations develop in which ideas or abstract concepts can be manipulated, hypothetical situations can be thought about, inferential and deductive reasoning can occur.

Question 19

What study supports the idea of object permanence?

Answer 19

Bower & Wishart blanket and ball study

Question 20

What study supports class inclusion?

Answer 20

Piaget & Szeminska showed 18 brown beads and 2 white beads. Both types of beads were made of wood. Children were asked if there were more brown beads or more wooden beads.

Question 21

What study supports conservation?

Answer 21

Piaget got 7 yro to agree that 2 identical beakers (A&B)contained the same amount of liquid. The child then witnesses Piaget pour the liquid from beaker B into a taller, thinner beaker (C). The child would say C had the most supporting their inability to conserve

Question 22

What study supports egocentrism and decentring?

Answer 22

Piaget & Inhelder Swiss mountain scene study
Children between 4 and 8 were presented and explored a scene of 3 mountains and then sat on one side while a doll was placed on one of the other sides. Children were then shown 10 pics of different views of the model, including the dolls and their own. They were asked to select the picture representing the dolls view. 4 yro chose their own (egocentric), 8 yro chose the dolls (decentred)

Question 23

What are the strengths of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 23

• Piaget’s studies support concepts such as class inclusion, egocentrism, centration, etc…
• Piaget’s idea of children learning new information develops cognition and therefore, has been applied to the education system in the form of ‘discovery learning’.

Question 24

What are the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 24

• Dasen found that the formal operational stage does not occur in children in all cultures which suggests it is not biologically determined
• Ignores the role of emotional and social factors in intellectual development, therefore emphasises cognitive aspects.
• Vygotsky’s theory is well supported and discusses the social nature of learning

Question 25

What is Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 25

Vygotsky Argued that cognitive development results from complex interactions between heredity and environment. Children are born with ‘elementary mental functions’ but as infants interact with the sociocultural environment through Guided learning within the zone of proximal development lead to the acquirement of higher functions through internalisation and use of semiotics

Question 26

What is Vygotsky’s idea of a ‘more knowledgeable other’ (MKO)?

Answer 26

MKO’s are mentors who have a better understanding with respect to a particular task, process or concept which assist children in learning. An MKO will model behaviour or provide verbal instructions, this is called cooperative dialogue. The child will internalise the new information.

Question 27

Explain Vygotsky’s concept of a zone of proximal development (ZPD)?

Answer 27

The ZPD is the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given allowing the development of higher functions. Cultural influences and MKO’s push children through the ZPD and tasks beyond their capabilities.

Question 28

Define scaffolding

Answer 28

Guided learning with a more knowledgeable other so that when a child was progressing well they gave less specific help and vice versa.

Question 29

According to Vygotsky what was the role of semiotics in cognitive development?

Answer 29

The use of signs and symbols to create meaning assists cognitive development. Language and cultural symbols act as a medium for knowledge to be transmitted from MKO’s to children, turning elementary mental functions into higher ones.

Question 30

What are the strengths of Vygotsky’s theory of scaffolding?

Answer 30

Wood & Middleton observed mother’s strategies to support 4 year olds in building a model. They found that scaffolding was most effective when matched to the needs of the learner and that the ZPD exists.

Question 31

What are the strengths of Vygotsky’s ideas of semiotics?

Answer 31

Berk found that children talked to themselves more when doing difficult tasks, this decreased with age, supporting vygotskys idea of progression of egocentric to inner speech

Question 32

What are the strengths of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 32

• Greenfield et al. Observed scaffolding in Mexico supporting the idea of it occurring in all cultures
• It can explain the influence of culture and language on development
• vygotsky has been applied within the education system through collaborative learning in which teachers are MKO’s promoting childrens use of language and scaffolding them.

Question 33

What are the weaknesses of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development?

Answer 33

Ignores the cognitive factors and overemphasised the social nature of development (Piaget).
Schaffer criticises vygotsky for ignoring emotional factors such as frustrations of failure.

Question 34

Define social cognition

Answer 34

Refers to the understanding of information relating to ourselves and others.

Question 35

What is Selman’s theory of social cognition?

Answer 35

Perspective taking (the ability to understand another’s viewpoint) is an important aspect of social cognition, which develops in 5 levels/stages progressing from egocentrism to considering a number of different perspectives and drawing conclusions in line with social conventions.

Question 36

How did Selman measure levels of perspective taking?

Answer 36

Selman presented children with interpersonal dilemmas (situations) and asked questions that required the children to take the perspectives of characters within the situations.

Question 37

What are the 5 levels of perspective taking Selman identified?

Answer 37

Undifferentiated stage (age 3-6)
Social informational stage (age 6-8)
Self reflective stage (age 8-10)
Mutual/third party stage (age 10-12)
Social role taking stage (12+)

Question 38

Outline Selman’s undifferentiated stage?

Answer 38

Children understand that the self and others have different thoughts/feelings, but frequently confuse the two.

Question 39

Outline Selman‘s informational stage

Answer 39

Children understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information.

Question 40

Outline Selman’s self reflective stage

Answer 40

Children can view their own thoughts/feelings from another persons perspective and are aware that others can do the same.

Question 41

Outline Selman’s mutual/third party stage

Answer 41

Children can view their thoughts and feelings from a neutral third party outside of a two-person situation.

Question 42

Outline Selman’s social stage

Answer 42

Individuals understand that third party perspective taking can be influenced by larger societal values.

Question 43

What are the strengths of Selman’s levels of perspective taking?

Answer 43

Selman has conducted many studies supporting the 5 levels using interpersonal dilemmas.
Practical applications used in social skills training that improve perspective taking

Question 44

What are the weaknesses of Selman’s levels of perspective taking?

Answer 44

Issues of causality - does perspective taking improve cognitive development, or does cognitive development improve perspective taking?
Culture bias - Selman used white western middle class children in his studies which cannot be applied to other cultures

Question 45

What is theory of mind?

Answer 45

The ability to reflect on the contents of ones own and others minds and therefore understand the thoughts of others.

Question 46

How is theory of mind tested?

Answer 46

The use of false belief tasks which assess whether a child understands that other people hold different beliefs to them - beliefs which are false.
For example, unexpected transfer task

Question 47

What is autism?

Answer 47

A disorder of communication, socialisation and flexibility in thought behaviour. This is called the triad impairment. Problems with communication involve delayed or lack of speech,repetitive language, problems with socialisation can involve failure to form friendships and lack of empathy. Problems of flexibility in thought behaviour involve limited imagination and inability to transfer skills between contexts.

Question 48

How does theory of mind explain autism?

Answer 48

Autism is caused by lack of a theory of mind. By not understanding that other people think differently to themselves, autistic individuals will have problems relating socially and communicating with others. This can make them appear egocentric. Furthermore, the inability to anticipate what others will say or do consequently means people become a source of fear and confusion for autistic individuals making social interaction very difficult.

Question 49

What is the aim of the Sally Anne study by Baron-Cohen?

Answer 49

To test for theory of mind within clinically normal, autistic and Down syndrome children.

Question 50

What was the procedure of the Sally Anne study?

Answer 50

The children were shown a story involving two dolls called Sally and Anne. They were shown Sally putting her ball in a basket and leaving the room. While she was out, anne moved the ball from the basket into a box. When Sally came back, the children were asked where Sally would look for her ball.

Question 51

What were the findings of the Sally Anne study?

Answer 51

Most of the control group and children with Down’s syndrome gave the correct answer, but only 20% of those with autism provided the right answer. This shows that autistic individual lack a theory of mind.

Question 52

What are the weaknesses of the Sally Anne study?

Answer 52

Lacks ecological validity, use of dolls instead of people reduces the similarity to real life and therefore, cannot be generalised beyond the setting of the experiment.

Question 53

What are mirror neurons?

Answer 53

Type of brain cells that responds equally when we perform an action and when we observe someone else perform the same action. This allows observers to experience an action or feeling as if it were there own. Some argue that this permits individuals to empathise with others and share their thoughts.

Question 54

How were mirror neurons first discovered?

Answer 54

Rizzolatti found mirror neurons in area F5 (Broca’s area) in monkeys and were activated by goal directed actions (reaching, holding) and observation of similar actions performed by others.

Question 55

How are mirror neurons studied?

Answer 55

Studied indirectly as individual neurons cannot be studied using neurophysiological and brain imaging studies.
fMRI
Mu rhythm suppression records using EEG over the sensorimotor cortex.

Question 56

What are the strengths of the mirror neuron theory?

Answer 56

Research support Rizolatti

Dapretto et al. Found that mirror neurons can be used in explaining autism

Question 57

What are the weaknesses of the mirror neuron theory?

Answer 57

Problems using fMRI (cannot study individual neurons)
Theoretical issue - difficult to ascertain the role of mirror neuron systems in social cognition.
Only found within animals - problems with extrapolation