Issues And Debates Flashcards
Define gender bias
When one gender is treated less favourably than the other
Define universality (in terms of gender)
Universality refers to all research is assumed to apply equally to both genders.
What are the three main ways that gender bias can occur? Give an example for each.
One gender samples e.g - Zimbardo used a male only sample
Using male behaviour as standard - Milgram studied males, but applied to both males and females
Emphasis of Biological differences - ?
Define androcentrism
‘Male bias’ in which men’s behaviour is the standard against which women’s behaviour is compared.
What are the two types of gender bias?
Alpha bias - the attempt to exaggerate the differences between the genders
Beta bias - the attempt to minimise the differences between the genders
Define culture bias
When one culture is treated less favourably than the other
Define ethnocentrism
The assumption that one ethnic group is superior to another or all others and that the behaviour of the ‘superior’ group is the norm.
Define cultural relativism
The belief that it is essential to consider the cultural context when examining behaviour in that culture. There is no global right or wrong, it varies across cultures.
What are emics and etics?
Emics are constructs that occur in one culture only.
Etics are constructs that occur in all cultures.
How does culture bias occur?
When the researcher confuses their own emics as being an etic, this is called ‘imposed etics’.
What is meant by the idiographic vs nomothetic debate?
A debate considering whether individuals should be considered unique or regarded as part of groups.
What is an idiographic approach?
An explanation that considers the individual and argues that generalising from person to person is difficult because of their own uniqueness.
What is a nomothetic approach?
An explanation that regards people as groups and establishes general laws and principles that can therefore be generalised.
What are the research methods preferred by idiographic approaches?
Case studies
Qualitative
What research methods are preferred by nomothetic approaches?
Quantitative
Experiments
What are the 3 types of general laws created by nomothetic approaches?
Classification (grouping people by characteristics) Establishing principles (creating laws that are applicable to all human behaviour) Establishing dimensions (creating scales/continuum’s allowing the comparison of others)
What approach is idiographic ?
Humanistic - it actively rejects any attempts to generalise across all humans.
What approaches are nomothetic?
Biological Behaviourist Social learning Psychodynamic Cognitive
What are the weaknesses of idiographic approaches?
Idiographic intervention into mental health is time consuming and therefore, it is difficult for it to be widespread.
What are the strengths of a idiographic approach?
Case studies often prompt ideas for further research as it studies the behaviour of an individual in detail.
What are the weaknesses of a nomothetic approach?
Nomothetic intervention into mental health is not appropriate for all. Evident by case studies, there are individual differences.
What are the strengths of a nomothetic approach?
The majority of psychology operates on a nomothetic basis with patterns being obtained. This allows nomothetic intervention assist the majority of people.
What is meant by the free will vs determinism debate?
A debate about whether humans are in control of what they do.
Define free will
Ones ability to voluntarily choose any course of action they take, which is independent from any internal or external stimuli.
Define determinism
Behaviour as being caused by some kind of internal or external force
What is meant by hard determinism?
The view that human behaviour is determined entirely by external forces beyond the individuals control.
What is soft determinism/compatiblism ?
The idea that behaviour is determined, but humans have the opportunity to exercise free will if need be
What is environmental determinism?
Behaviour is determined by factors external of the individual.
What approaches are environmentally deterministic?
Behaviourist
Social learning theory.
What is biological determinism?
Biological mechanisms including genetics, brain physiology, biochemistry and evolution determines behaviour.
What approach is biologically deterministic?
Biological approach
What is psychic determinism?
Behaviour is determined by the unconscious
How does the free will vs determinism debate apply to aggression?
The genetic and biochemical explanations are biologically deterministic.
What is the nature-nurture debate?
Conflicting explanations involving the extent to which behaviour is a product of either inheritance or learning.
What are nativists?
Individuals that argue the nature side of the debate.
What is the nativist view of behaviour?
Individuals are born with predispositions and preprogrammed behaviours and any behaviours developed later in life are a result of maturation.
What are empiricists?
Individuals that argue the nurture side of the debate
What is the empiricist view of behaviour?
At birth, the human mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ (blank slate) and this is gradually filled as a result of experience.
How is heritability assessed?
Twin studies
Adoption/family studies
What are gene-environment interactions?
The complex relationship between genotype and the environment. They can influence the other which affects how behaviour is expressed.
What gene-environment interaction did Scarr and McCartney identify?
Niche picking in which an individuals predisposition for a certain behaviour acts as a tool in the selection of environments. This means that nature can affect nurture. For example, a genetic predisposition to be good at art, would lead to an individual going to art school.
What 3 gene-environment interactions does Plomin identify?
Passive interaction - parents provide both the genes and home environment that influences behaviour
Evocative/Reactive - inherited characteristics provoke an environmental response
Active - niche picking
How does nurture affect nature?
Epigenetics (environmental influences affect genetic information) Neural plasticity (synaptic pruning is the loss of unused neurones meaning that the brain is shaped by experience)
What studies supports gene-environment interactions?
Turkheimer aimed to examine how socioeconomic status affects heritability of IQ based on twins.
Diathesis stress model explains schizophrenia from an interactionist approach
Tienari et al. Individuals with high genetic vulnerability and environmental stressors are more likely to develop schizophrenia
Define holism
The argument that behaviour should be viewed as a whole as behaviour is an emergent property of all levels of explanation.
Define reductionism
The argument that behaviour should be studied by breaking it down into smaller components. It operates under the assumption of parsimony - complex phenomena can be explained by the simplest underlying principles.
What are the levels of explanation in psychology?
Social cognition, social groups, interpersonal interaction, cognition and emotion, learned associations, genetics, physiology, cellular biology, biochemistry.
What approaches are holistic?
Humanistic psychology
Social psychology
What approaches are reductionist?
Behaviourist approach
Biological approach
How can holism and reductionism be applied to cognition and development?
Vygotsky and Piaget are holistic in that they look at both innate (biological) mechanisms as well as the role of the environment in cognition.
Mirror neurone system is biologically reductionist by claiming cognition is a result of brain physiology
