Research Methods - 6

Question 1

Phycological Research

Answer 1

1. Research that underpins psychological explanations and is crucial to the scientific process.
2. Suggest theories that revolve around human behaviour and test them using psychological investigations or studies

Question 2

Types of variables

Answer 2

1. Independent variable
2. Dependent variable
3. Extraneous Variables
4. Situational variables
5. Participant variables

Question 3

Independent Variable

Answer 3

1. Variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher to examine the effect
2. Can have two or more levels (2 or more manipulations) - the variable can either be manipulated and altered several times under several tests
3. To identify, find the factor being altered between tests/conditions
4. must be operationalised - detailed and specific

Question 4

Dependent Variable

Answer 4

1. variable that is being measured
2. Is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
3. outcome of the study
4. to identify, find the factor being measured
5. must be operationalised - detailed and specific

Question 5

Operationalised

Answer 5

1. detailed and specific

2. another researcher must know how to measure, change and manipulate an operationalised variable

Question 6

Extraneous variable

Answer 6

1. factors that may interfere with the IV and DV and affect the results
2. Associated with conditions of the study or participants
3. If it is not controlled and has an effect on the outcome it is called a confounding variable

Question 7

Confounding variable

Answer 7

1. type of extraneous variable
2. confounds the result
3. effects the result fo the effect of the IV is not seen or evident

Question 8

Situational variable

Answer 8

1. present in the environment of the investigation
2. e.g. noise, distractions, light levels, and temperature
3. may affect the outcome of the experiment if it is changed between tests (is not controlled)
4. how the experiment was conducted can lead to situational variables: demand characteristics, investigator effects, order effects,

Question 9

demand characteristics

Answer 9

1. participants may change their behaviour to meet the aim of the study
2. Investigator effects - researcher unintentionally gives participants clues on how to behave

Question 10

Order Effects

Answer 10

Participants improve or change because the test needs to be repeated numerous times

Question 11

Participant variables

Answer 11

1. associated with the people participating in the experiment
2. participants have different abilities and tendencies that influence the outcome of the study especially is one participant is found only in one condition of the experiment.
3. e.g. physical ability, personality type, substance tolerance, life experiences, mood etc

Question 12

Standardised procedure

Answer 12

where the procedure of a study is the same across all conditions

Question 13

Controlling extraneous variables

Answer 13

1. eliminate or control the variable
2. most can be controlled but not eliminated
3. removing the likelihood of extraneous variables occuring

Question 14

Controlling situational variable

Answer 14

standardised procedure

Question 15

Controlling order effects

Answer 15

1. counter balancing - half of the participants experience the first condition first and the second half does the second condition first so improvement and decline in performance are balanced
2. randomisation - same principle as counterbalancing but the decision of which condition is first is random

Question 16

Controlling demand characteristics

Answer 16

1. single-blind technique - participants are blind to the aim of the study and certain information is withheld so the behaviour is not changed
2. double-blind technique - both the participants and investigators don’t know the aim of the study (controls demand characteristics encouraged by investigator effects

Question 17

Controlling participant variables

Answer 17

1. use the same participants for all conditions of the experiment so the data for each condition can be compared
2. use different participants that are matched to important characteristics
3. random allocation - participants are randomly assigned to different conditions so that results are in random distribution

Question 18

Hypothesis

Answer 18

1. Every study has a null hypothesis and an alternative (experimental) hypothesis
2. Predicted outcomes of the study
3. way it is written is dependent on what the experiment is looking for

Question 19

Null hypothesis

Answer 19

1. prediction that the result of outcome will have little to no effect
2. “any difference will be due to chance” because it is unlikely that no difference will be found

Question 20

Alternative (experimental) hypothesis

Answer 20

1. Prediction of the expected outcome of a study based on a theory
2. directional hypothesis, non-directional hypothesis, and experimental hypothesis

Question 21

directional hypothesis

Answer 21

1. if the theory makes a clear claim
2. the expected direction that the results will go in
3. shows correlation
4. e.g. “adults will recall more digits than children”

Question 22

non-directional hypothesis

Answer 22

1. if the theory is unable to make a clear claim
2. a difference or relationship will be found but des not state the difference of relationship
3. e.g. “there will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by adults and children”

Question 23

Experimental hypothesis

Answer 23

1. used when a lab or field experiment is being carried out

Question 24

Methods of sampling

Answer 24

1. random sampling technique
2. stratified sampling technique
3. Volunteer sampling technique
4. Opportunity sampling technique

Question 25

Target population

Answer 25

1. group of people that a study wishes to focus, study and apply the findings on 2. a sample of the target population will be used to represent the target population 3. Findings of the study has to be generalised to the target population

Question 26

Sample

Answer 26

a selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation

Question 27

generalisability

Answer 27

the extent to which the results of a study represent the whole population not just the sample used

Question 28

sampling method

Answer 28

a technique used to gather a representative group of people as a sample from the target population

Question 29

random sampling technique

Answer 29

1. target population must be identified and all have an equal chance of getting chosen 2. involves assigning every member with a number and drawing them e.g. lottery 3. strength: should generate a representative sample as each member has an equal chance of getting chosen (helps control participant variables) 4. weakness: even if randomly selected not everyone may agree to taking part leading to a less representative sample 5. used to gather a random sample of participants from the target population

Question 30

stratified sampling technique

Answer 30

1. can be used if a target population is made up of different people and a researcher wants to replicate the experiment 2. identifies the subgroups within the target population and takes a random sample from each to ensure they are all represented in the sample 3. ensures subgroups of the target population are proportionately represented in a sample 4. strength: useful if a small subgroup of the target population may be missed by using a random sampling technique and ensures that the sample is completely representative 5. weakness: time-consuming and people may still refuse to take part which leads to a sample error and wrong conclusions being drawn

Question 31

sample error

Answer 31

when a sample differs in qualities from the target population it intends to represent

Question 32

biased sample

Answer 32

when the sample recruited is made up of a particular type of person which may not reflect the target population

Question 33

Volunteer sampling technique

Answer 33

1. involves gathering a sample of participants who are willing to volunteer themselves to take place in a study. 2. advertising the study in adverts or a noticeboards that request volunteers to get in touch if they would like to participate 3. strength: minimal effort for researches to identify and select a sample. It is possible to recruit from a target population by placing the advert in a specific location. It is also the most ethical sampling method because participants are not asked to participate directly and avoids putting pressure on people to participate 4. weakness: less representative as not everyone in the target location will respond to the ad and can lead to a biased sample making the results unreliable

Question 34

Opportunity sampling

Answer 34

1. makes use of people who happen to be around at the time of the research 2. Asking people to agree to take part os simply studying people who happen to be there without their agreement 3. recruits participants who are readily available at the time 4. strength: quickest and simplest sampling 5. weakness: biased sample as not every member of the target population will be around at a time. The study is hard to replicate making it unreliable

Question 35

Reliability

Answer 35

1. consistency of an outcome which means that the same result is found again and again 2. cannot trust results if they only found once

Question 36

Validity

Answer 36

1. extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure

Question 37

Laboratory experiment

Answer 37

1. takes place in a controlled experiment (artificial environment) 2. researchers stage the conditions of the study and invite participants along 3. Has an IV and a DV and the aim is to discover cause and effect between these variable 4. useful for studies that need to isolate the IV and DV and exercise control

Question 38

Field Experiment

Answer 38

1. takes place in a natural environment 2. has an IV that is manipulated by the researcher and a DV that is being measured 3. Control over extraneous variables but not as much control as a lab experiment 4. participants may or may not be aware they are taking part in the research 5. useful when studying behaviour that needs to be seen and tested in a natural environment

Question 39

Natural experiment

Answer 39

1. occurs in a real-life environment 2. has an IV and DV but the researchers are not manipulating the IV - it occurs naturally 3. make use of naturally occurring situations

Question 40

Types of research and experimental design

Answer 40

1. Independent measures design 2. Repeated measures design 3. Matched pairs design

Question 41

Research design

Answer 41

how participants are allocated to the conditions of a study

Question 42

Experimental design

Answer 42

the name given to research design when used in an experiment

Question 43

Independent measures design

Answer 43

1. participants are split into groups with each group tested in only one condition of a study 2. This is also known as independent groups design 3. Sometimes this is the only design possible, if gender or age is the IV for e.g.

Question 44

Repeated measures design

Answer 44

the same participants are used in all conditions of a study

Question 45

Matched pairs design

Answer 45

1. different participants are used in each condition of the study, but are matched for likeness on important characteristics

Question 46

Strengths of independent measures design

Answer 46

no order effect as participants only take part in one condition of the study

Question 47

Weaknesses of independent measures design

Answer 47

1. more participants are needed than for a repeated measures design 2. There may be individual differences between the groups (participants should be randomly allocated)

Question 48

Pros of Repeated measures design

Answer 48

1. Fewer participants are needed making it more economical | 2. There are not individual differences between conditions of the study

Question 49

Cons of repeated measures design

Answer 49

1. Demand characteristics are more likely as participants are more able to guess the aim 2. Order effects mean that results may reflect practice or fatigue (use counterbalancing or randomisation)

Question 50

Pros of matched pairs design

Answer 50

fair comparisons can be made between the groups as they are equally matched

Question 51

Cons of matched pairs design

Answer 51

it is more time-consuming to match participants and not all characteristics can be equally matched

Question 52

Triangulation

Answer 52

when more than one measure is taken for a behaviour to cross-validate the findings

Question 53

Ethic requirements in psychology

Answer 53

1. Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities 2. Scientific integrity 3. Social responsibility 4. Maximising benefit and minimising harm

Question 54

Ethic issues in psychology

Answer 54

1. Informed consent 2. Deception 3. Confidentiality 4. Right to Withdraw 5. Protection of participants 6. Debriefing

Question 55

Informed consent

Answer 55

1. agreement of participants to take part once they are fully aware of the aims, nature, and intended outcomes of a study 2. It is important that participants give their informed consent to participate in psychology research 3. To achieve this, participants are given a consent form and information about the study 4. The participant is then given the choice as to whether or not they still want to participant 5. Sometimes research is conducted without the consent of participants such as observing everyday behaviour of people in public places. However even then, researchers should be sensitive to issues of privacy and cultural beliefs.

Question 56

Deception

Answer 56

1. Deception is misleading or lying to participants 2. This violates a participants ability to give informed consent, so should be avoided 3. However, it can be seen as necessary to deceive participants to maintain the integrity of a study, as long as the participants are protected and the deception is disclosed as soon as possible which usually occurs during a debrief

Question 57

Confidentiality

Answer 57

1. Participant information should be kept confidential at all times to ensure participants cannot be identified by the research

Question 58

Right to withdraw

Answer 58

1. from the outset of any research, participants should be aware that they have every right to withdraw from the study at any point 2. This includes being able to withdraw their results for an agreed time after the study is complete 3. a participant should never be offered an incentive, such as money, to forgo their right to withdraw

Question 59

Protection of participants

Answer 59

1. safeguarding participants against physical and psychological harm 2. Psychological harm is quite subjective as some people may be more distressed or embarrassed than others, so it is important to consider how each participant may feel from their point of view. Once this has been established, the researchers should highlight any aspect of a procedure that may cause individual psychological harm and minimise these risks 3. Incentives should not be used to encourage participants to endure harm that is beyond what they may experinece in everyday life

Question 60

qualitative methods

Answer 60

1. ways of conducting research that find out new information rather than testing a prediction 2. often resulting in gathering qualitative data

Question 61

Triangulation

Answer 61

when more than one measure is taken for a behaviour to cross-validate the findings

Question 62

researcher bias

Answer 62

when a researcher interprets the outcome of a study according to their own view (subjective)

Question 63

Objective

Answer 63

1. not open to interpretation | 2. unbiased

Question 64

quantitative methods

Answer 64

ways of conducting research that test a prediction and gather quantitative data

Question 65

pros of lab experiments

Answer 65

1. most scientific of the research methods due to control | 2. cause and effect can be established between the ID and DV making it more valid

Question 66

cons of lab experiments

Answer 66

1. conducted in an unnatural environment 2. participants are invited to the experiment so they may display demand characteristics 3. Considered reductionist because it isolates only the variables under consideration, ignoring other variables that could also be involved

Question 67

pros of field experiments

Answer 67

1. conducted in a naturalistic environment, so the behaviour is natural 2. There is cause and effect between the IV and DV and some extraneous variables can be controlled

Question 68

Cons of field experiments

Answer 68

1. not all extraneous variables can be controlled because it is a real-life environment 2. Participants may be unaware of taking part so researchers may not have gained consent

Question 69

Pros of natural experiment

Answer 69

1. the IV is naturally occurring and not manipulated | 2. The environment in which participants are studied is real and naturalistic

Question 70

cons of natural experiment

Answer 70

1. it is not possible to randomly allocate participants to conditions of the IV so there may be issues with participant variables that can influence the findings 2. extraneous variables are difficult to control

Question 71

interview

Answer 71

a research method designed to gather self-reported information from participants

Question 72

types of interviews

Answer 72

1. structured interview 2. semi-structured interview 3. unstructured interview

Question 73

structured interview

Answer 73

a set of pre-set questions asked to a respondent

Question 74

interview schedule

Answer 74

a list of set questions around the study aim

Question 75

semi-structured interview

Answer 75

a mix of pre-set questions and unprepared questions asked to a responden

Question 76

unstructured interview

Answer 76

a free-flowing conversation around a particular topic with a respondent

Question 77

social desirability bias

Answer 77

during an interview, a respondent may answer a question in a way that is deemed socially acceptable

Question 78

interviewer effect

Answer 78

the characteristics of an interviewer impact the way a respondent answers questions

Question 79

closed-ended questions

Answer 79

questions with a fixes response to choose from

Question 80

open-ended questions

Answer 80

questions with no fixed response

Question 81

correlation

Answer 81

a way of analysing relationships between variables

Question 82

co-variables

Answer 82

two variables that can be plotted against each other to indicate the type of relationship between them

Question 83

observation

Answer 83

a research method that involves watching and recording behaviour

Question 84

naturalistic observation

Answer 84

1. an observation conducted in an everyday environment where the behaviour being studied is normally seen 2. Behaviour is likely to be natural 3. Behaviour is likely to have higher ecological validity 4. Low control lead to low internal validity, making it difficult to establish cause and effect

Question 85

controlled or structured observation

Answer 85

1. an observation carried out in a lab or controlled environment 2. Control over Extraneous variables, hence high internal validity 3. Establishes cause and effect 4. Can be unnatural and lead to low ecological validity

Question 86

overt observation

Answer 86

1. participants know they are being observed as part of an investigation 2. More ethical 3. Open to demand characteristics

Question 87

covert observation

Answer 87

1. participants are unaware that they are being observed 2. also known as covert observation 3. Behaviour is likely to be natural 4. Behaviour is likely to have higher ecological validity 5. Ethical issue of privacy

Question 88

Participant observation

Answer 88

1. when an observer is involved in the group they are observing 2. Data can be open to subjective interpretations

Question 89

non-participant observation

Answer 89

the observer watches and records people without being actively involved

Question 90

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 90

when more than one observer codes behaviour and their results are compared to check for agreement

Question 91

normal distribution

Answer 91

when mean, median, and mode are very similar or the same

Question 92

skewed distribution

Answer 92

when median and/or mode differ from the mean

Question 93

primary data

Answer 93

data collected directly for a specific research purpose

Question 94

secondary data

Answer 94

data used in a study that have already been collected, often for a different purpose

Question 95

meta-analysis

Answer 95

a procedure used to merge and analyse findings from studies focusing on a similar issue in order to draw overall conclusions

Question 96

risk-benefit

Answer 96

comparing a study's risks and benefits to ensure the benefits outweighs the risks

Question 97

Internal validity

Answer 97

Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome.

Question 98

external validity

Answer 98

External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study.

Question 99

Debriefing

Answer 99

a meeting to question someone, typically a soldier or spy, about a completed mission or undertaking.

Question 100

Questionnaires

Answer 100

a self-report technique designed to ask lots of people questions about a topic

Question 101

Pros of Typical questionnaire with closed questions

Answer 101

1. The data is collected and assessed in a standardised way meaning it is easy to replicate the research and objectively assess the data. 2. We can test the reliability statistically e.g. test-retest. 3. Data is quantitative (number) so statistical analysis can be used to compare groups of data. 4. It is a quick method to collect data, hence a bigger sample is likely.

Question 102

cons of Typical questionnaire with closed questions

Answer 102

1. People might lie, giving socially desirable answers. 2. There is a limited number of responses so the participant might not be able to express themselves truthfully in their answer. 3. Can’t be used by illiterate people (can’t read or write) e.g. children.

Question 103

pros of Un/Semi-Structured Interview

Answer 103

1. Filler questions can be used so participants don’t guess the aim. 2. Data-rich qualitative data is collected. 3. Inter-rater reliability can be used to test the consistency of the qualitative data.

Question 104

cons of Un/Semi-Structured Interview

Answer 104

1. It is a very time consuming process. 2. People might lie, giving socially desirable answers. 3. Very difficult to compare the results of one participant with another.

Question 105

structured observation

Answer 105

1. An observation carried out in a laboratory or controlled environment 2. Quantitative data collected so statistical tests can give objective interpretations

Question 106

unstructured observation

Answer 106

1. Observer notes what they see 2. Data-rich qualitative result 3. Not all behaviours that are of interest might be recorded 4. Data can be open to subjective interpretations

Question 107

positive correlation

Answer 107

A positive correlation means that when one variable increases, the other variable also increases.

Question 108

negative correlation

Answer 108

A negative correlation means that when one variable decreases, the other variable increases.

Question 109

strengths of correlation

Answer 109

1. Can give you a more holistic view of the relationship between the two variables 2. The variables are naturally occurring hence more ethical. 3. Often the method involves questionnaires, so getting the data is convenient, hence better population validity. 4. They are cheaper and less time-consuming than experimental research 5. It is useful to study a topic that would be difficult to study experimentally for ethical reasons. Using co-variables rather than manipulation is less interventionist and therefore likely to be more ethical

Question 110

weaknesses of correlation

Answer 110

1. You cannot assume a cause and effect relationship. It is hard to deduce whether one variables causes another to occur as it could be the other way around 2. Cause and effect cannot be inferred. (3rd variable or we don’t know which variables cause the other). 3. As the study is natural, there is often a lack of control, so other variables can influence the results. 4. Non-linear relationships will not be identified by a correlation coefficient.

Question 111

Case study

Answer 111

a study of a single person, group, or event

Question 112

Descriptive statistics

Answer 112

1. ways of summarising data to make raw data easier to understand 2. Descriptive statistics include mean, median, mode, range, and also graphs

Question 113

Raw data

Answer 113

the results themselves, without analysis

Question 114

Measure of dispersion

Answer 114

a way of showing the spread of scores and variability

Question 115

Frequency score

Answer 115

the number of times each score if found in a dataset

Question 116

Frequency table

Answer 116

shows how often each score in a dataset is found using tallying

Question 117

population validity

Answer 117

Extend to which the results from a studies sample can be applied to other people.

Question 118

Longitudinal Study

Answer 118

A study which does not take place at one point in time. It may occurs over a number of week or months …etc

Question 119

pros of a case study

Answer 119

1. A case study can be used in situations that would be unethical to set up experimentally 2. Provides the most in-depth information about a particular individual. Data-rich information is collected. This allows the researcher to get a holistic opinion about the individual or group being studied. 3. They can stimulate research into new areas of psychology that would not have been found unless rare individuals have been studied 4. Another advantage of case studies is that the research happens in a natural environment. This means the studies usually have high ecological validity.

Question 120

cons of a case study

Answer 120

1. Cannot be repeated to check the reliability of the findings as every individual studied is unique. 2. The findings from case studies may not be applicable to other people, so lack generalisability. Many people acknowledge that case studies are not very scientific. The sample size is usually only one person. This means the study cannot generalize to other people, meaning the studies have low population validity. 3. Since the researcher may be intensely involved in gathering of data from the case study, they may lose their objectivity and interpret the findings differently from others (research bias)