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Psychology AS > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is involved in a laboratory experiment?

A 
Independent variable (IV) manipulated
Effect of this manipulation on the dependent variable (DV) observed / measured
Done in a controlled environment
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2
Q

What is operationalisation?

A

Explaining precisely how IV can be manipulated and how DV can be measured.

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3
Q

What are extraneous variables and what should be done about them?

A

Variables which interfere with effect of IV on DV. They should be controlled, e.g. by using standardised procedures.

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4
Q

Name the different types of hypotheses

A

Alternative / experimental hypothesis. It is either directional or non-directional.

Null hypothesis

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5
Q

Write a directional hypothesis for Conrad (study into encoding in STM)

A

More acoustically dissimilar letters will be recalled in the correct order than acoustically similar letters.

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6
Q

Write a non-directional hypothesis for Conrad (study into encoding in STM)

A

There will be a difference in the number of acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar letters recalled in the correct order.

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7
Q

Write a null hypothesis for Conrad (study into encoding in STM)

A

There will be no difference in the number of acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar letters recalled in the correct order.

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8
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A

Different participants are used in each condition of the IV.

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9
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A

The same participants are used in each condition of the IV.

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10
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A

Different participants are used in each condition of the IV, but each person is paired with someone who is similar in the other condition.

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11
Q

What is the main limitation of an independent groups design?

A

Participant variables (i.e. differences between participants in each condition) might confound the effect of the IV on the DV.

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12
Q

How should participants be allocated to conditions in an independent groups design and why?

A

Randomly (i.e. each participant has mathematically equal chance of being in either condition): makes it less likely that participant variables will confound results.

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13
Q

What is the main strength of a repeated measures design and why?

A

It controls for participant variables. There are no differences between participants in each condition because the same participants are used twice.

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14
Q

What are the two key limitations of a repeated measures design?

A

Order effects

Likelihood of demand characteristics

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15
Q

What are order effects ?

A

The order in which participants do the two conditions can confound the effect of the IV on the DV. For example if participants do rehearsal of word pairs followed by imagery for (different) word pairs, they might do better on the second condition, not because of the memory technique used (the IV) but because the imagery condition has benefited from practice.

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16
Q

How are order effects usually controlled?

A

By counterbalancing.
Half participants do condition A, then B; other half do B, then A.
Any order effect (e.g. practice) then affects each condition equally.

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17
Q

Why are demand characteristics more likely when using a repeated measures design?

A

Participants take part in both conditions, so are more likely to work out the experimenter’s hypothesis.

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18
Q

What are reliability and validity?

A 
Reliability = consistency
Validity = truth / realism
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19
Q

What is inter observer reliability?

A

If two observers watch the same behaviour and they categorise it in the same way (e.g. give a punch the same aggression rating), then their observations are reliable.

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20
Q

What are the two meanings of internal validity?

A

Extraneous variables are well controlled so effect of IV on DV is properly measured.
Experimental validity: participant engages realistically with experiment.

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21
Q

What are the two aspects of external validity?

A

Ecological validity

Population validity

22
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

The extent to which findings generalise from the situation in which the study was done (e.g. in a lab) to other settings (e.g. the real world)

23
Q

What is population validity?

A

The extent to which findings generalise from the sample studied to the target population.

24
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Clues which give the participants an idea of what kind of response the researcher is looking for.

25
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

Responding to questions in ways that make you seem more favourable to others.

26
Q

What is a random sample and how can it be selected?

A

Every member of the target population (or sampling frame if the names of the whole population are not available) has an equal chance of being selected.
Manually (names out of a hat) or electronically (random number generator)

27
Q

What is an opportunity sample and how can it be selected?

A

Researcher uses whoever is available

E.g. lecturer using students; using passers by in the street

28
Q

What is a volunteer sample and how can it be selected?

A

Requesting participants to take part in research, e.g. by asking them to answer an advertisement in a newspaper.

29
Q

What is the difference between an opportunity and a volunteer sample?

A

Opportunity: researcher approaches potential participants (e.g. asking people in the street to fill in a questionnaire).
Volunteer: researcher asks potential participants to approach her/him (e.g. asking people to reply to an advertisement).

30
Q

Why are opportunity and volunteer samples more likely to be biased than a random sample?

A

With opportunity samples the researcher might ‘hand pick’ participants to suit the hypothesis; or only a certain type of person might be available (e.g. a lecturer has easiest access to students).
People who volunteer for research might be more helpful than the average person.
Provided a random sample is taken from a large enough sample frame, neither of these problems should occur.

31
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A trial run carried out before the main investigation on a small number of different participants.

32
Q

What are some of the purpose of a pilot study?

A

To give the researcher practice in carrying out the research; check that participants have a clear understanding of instructions; check that behaviours are being measured reliably (e.g. that observers are categorising behaviour reliably).

33
Q

How do both field and natural experiments differ from a laboratory experiment?

A

They are carried out in the real world rather than in a controlled setting.

34
Q

What is the difference between a field and a natural experiment?

A

In a field experiment the researcher manipulates IV; in a natural experiment the researcher takes advantage of a change in the IV which occurs without the researcher’s intervention.

35
Q

Which method is best for determining conclusions about causality and why?

A

Laboratory experiment
It has a higher degree of control than non-experimental, natural and field experiments. As extraneous variables are controlled, an observed difference in the DV between conditions must be the result of the IV.

36
Q

How does deception differ from lack of informed consent?

A

Deception goes further - it involves lying to or tricking participants in order to hide the true purpose of the study.
A researcher could fail to reveal the purpose of a study without any trickery - this involves lack of informed consent but not deception.

37
Q

What should participants be told about their right to withdraw?

A

Researcher should tell participants before the study begins that they can withdraw at any time without giving a reason; and that any data relating to them would be destroyed on request.

38
Q

What is meant by confidentiality?

A

Participants should not be identifiable from the report of the study.
Data should be stored securely.

39
Q

When can a researcher observe participants who have not given explicit consent?

A

When the observation is in a public place where those being observed would expect to be observed by strangers.

40
Q

Summarise the protection from harm guideline.

A

Participants should be at no greater risk of physical or psychological harm than in everyday life.

41
Q

How can debriefing help to deal with deception?

A

Inform participants how and why they were deceived and inform them of the study’s true purpose.

42
Q

How can debriefing help to deal with protection from harm?

A

Discuss participants’ experience to identify any unforeseen distress.
Offer professional support (e.g. counselling) if necessary.
In some cases (e.g. Milgram) reassure participants that their behaviour is normal.

43
Q

What special considerations apply about consent when children are studied?

A

Researcher should obtain children’s consent if they are old enough to understand; language used should be appropriate to their age.
Should also obtain parents’ consent (or headteacher’s consent if the study is similar to a classroom activity).

44
Q

When might the median be a more appropriate measure of central tendency than the mean?

A

When the mean would be distorted by outliers (anomalous results) in a small sample

45
Q

What advantage do both the mean and standard deviation have over the median and range?

A

What advantage do both the mean and standard deviation have over the median and range? They are more sensitive to all the data: both require all of the data to be calculated.

46
Q

What is the point of calculating measures of central tendency, e.g. in an experiment into the effectiveness of a memory improvement strategy?

A

To determine whether results in one condition, overall, are better: e.g. has the memory improvement strategy led to better recall than no strategy at all?

47
Q

What is the point of calculating measures of dispersion e.g. in an experiment into the effectiveness of a memory improvement strategy?

A

To determine whether results in one condition, overall, are more consistent: e.g. if the standard deviation is higher in the memory improvement strategy condition than the no strategy one, this might suggest that there are individual differences in how well people respond to the strategy.

48
Q

What 3 things should you remember if asked to sketch a bar chart (e.g. of the means of two conditions)?

A

What 3 things should you remember if asked to sketch a bar chart (e.g. of the means of two conditions)? Title
Label axes
Keep bars apart

49
Q

What is represented by the peak of a frequency polygon?

A

The mode

50
Q

If there is little overlap between two frequency polygons (for two conditions), what does this suggest?

A

That the results for the two conditions are significantly different

Psychology AS (7 decks)

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