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Abnormality Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the term abnormal mean?

A

Deviating from the average (norm). Any rare behaviour or ability is abnormal.

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2
Q

3 ways of defining abnormality

A
  • deviation from social norms
  • failure to function adequately
  • deviation from ideal mental health
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3
Q

Social norms are explicit or implicit

A

Both

Implicit= unspoken
Explicit= spoken
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4
Q

Example of implicit social norm

A

Standing too close to someone

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5
Q

Example of a explicit social norm

A

Laws

Signs (standing to the right on escalator)

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6
Q

People who violate social norms are often considered

A

deviant or abnormal

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7
Q

Name some limitations of the deviation from social norms definition

A 
Eccentric or abnormal
abnormal or criminal
role of context
change with the times
risk of abuse
cultural issues
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8
Q

Limitations of the failure to function adequately definition

A

Not the whole picture
Exceptions to the rule
Direction of causality: cultural issues

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9
Q

Define failure to function adequately

A

A person with a psychological disorder often experiences distress and the inability to cope with everyday activities like work or social activities.

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10
Q

Who put forward the option of ideal mental health

A

Marie Jahoda in 1958

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11
Q

What did Marie Jahoda do?

A

She identified six major criteria for optimal living which she believed promoted psychological health and wellbeing. Anyone lacking these qualities would be vulnerable to mental disorder in her opinion.

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12
Q

Name the six criteria by Marie Jahoda of ideal mental health

A
  • Positive Attitudes
  • Self-actualisation of one’s potential
  • Resistance to stress
  • Personal Autonomy
  • Accurate perception of reality
  • Adapting to and mastering the environment
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13
Q

What are social norms?

A

Social norms are explicit and implicit rules that society has about acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs

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14
Q

Define implicit rules

A

convention within society, unspoken rules

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15
Q

Define explicit rules

A

Laws, if violated behaviour seen as criminal

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16
Q

Whats taken into account by doctors when diagnosing a disorder?

A

Failure to function- occupational and social functioning

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17
Q

What does DSM stand for?

A

Diagnostic and statistical manual

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18
Q

What does GAF stand for?

A

GAF- Global assessment of functioning scale

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19
Q

What is no longer part of the DSM

A

GAF scale

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20
Q

Examples of impairment to function adequately

A 
Depressed mood
Mild insomnia
Suicidal ideation
Severe obsessional rituals
Danger of hurting oneself or others
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21
Q

Name the 3 limitations associated with the social norms definition

A

Changes with time
Risk of Abuse
Cultural Issues

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22
Q

What happened to the DSM in 1973

A

homosexuality removed and replaced by the category sexual orientation disturbance. Homosexuality no longer seen as an abnormality.

Limited as changes with time as fails to provide you with a list of behaviours which are abnormal at all times.

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23
Q

Example of cultural issues limitation of social norms

A

In African and Indian cultures hearing voices is seen as normal and seen as a way of contacting loved ones.

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24
Q

Example of changes with time limitations of social norm

A

homosexuality removed from DSM, used to be seen as abnormal behaviour

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25
Q

Example of Risk of abuse limitation of social norm

A

In some countries dissidents may be classed as mentally ill due to their opposing views to the ruling party- seen as social control.

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26
Q

Limitations of the failure to function adequately definition

A

Dysfunction is not an indicator of all disorders. Psychological disorders may not prevent a person from functioning adequately. People can maintain adequate functioning despite clinical levels of a disorder. The psychopath can appear normal most of the time and show no distress over his/her behaviour.

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27
Q

Identify and explain one definition of abnormality

A

Deviation from social norms, not understanding implicit social norms like invading peoples personal space and laughing during inappropriate times to the affect the situation.

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28
Q

Explain a limitation of deviation from social norms

A

Behaviour can be seen as eccentric rather than abnormal, only some behaviours can be regarded as pathological.

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29
Q

Name the 4 approaches to abnormality

A
  • Biological/Physiological
  • Psychodynamic
  • Cognitive
  • Behavioural
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30
Q

Describe the biological approach to abnormality

A

All behaviour normal and abnormal is rooted in our biology, particularly the brain

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31
Q

Identify the 3 key features of the biological approach

A

Genetics
Biochemistry
Brain Structure

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32
Q

Define concordant

A

Twins both develop disease

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33
Q

Define discordant

A

Only one twin develop disease

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34
Q

If one twin develops a disease are they concordant or discordant

A

discordant

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35
Q

Explain the twin studies

A

the presence or absence of a disease in twins can indicate level of disease causation which can be credited to an individual genetic make up rather than environmental exposures

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36
Q

Define monozygotic

A

Identical twins

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37
Q

Define dizygotic

A

(non identical) 2 different fertilised eggs, share 50% of genes like siblings

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38
Q

Describe the adoption studies

A

Twins are more likely to share environment. If twins adopted they are exposed to different environment to sibling. Adoptions tidies look at a disease between genetically identically related twins in comparison to adoptive relatives. If concordance rate is higher in a adoptive then environmental factors are important.

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39
Q

What 2 studies investigate genetic explanations of abnormality?

A

Twin studies and Adoption studies

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40
Q

Outline the key features of the biological approach to psychopathology

A

Genetics
Biochemistry
Brain Structure

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41
Q

Explain the brain structure feature in the biological approach

A

Abnormalities are because of changes in the structure of the brain e.g. the size or function of the brain, enlarged ventricles

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42
Q

Explain the Genetics feature in the biological approach

A

Abnormalities have a genetic component and can be inherited
Concordance rate
Twins studies

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43
Q

Explain the biochemistry feature in the biological approach

A

Abnormalities caused by an imbalance of chemicals in the brain too much or too little of a hormone or neurotransmitter which can affect mood.

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44
Q

The higher the concordance rate the …

A

more likely both twins will suffer from the same disorder

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45
Q

Weakness of the biochemical explanation

A

Issue of cause and effect

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46
Q

Evaluate the genetics feature in the biological approach

A

Concordance rate is not 100% in MZ twins therefore genes is not entirely responsible and other facts contribute to the development of mental disorders

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47
Q

Why are genes not entirely responsible for determining whether an individual develops a mental disorder or not

A

Concordance rate in MZ twins is NOT 100% so other factors must contribute.

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48
Q

Identify one specific brain area where abnormality has been identified in schizophrenic patients

A

Paralimbic cortex -goldsteins evidence

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49
Q

Identify one methodological strength of Goldsteins research

A
  • Matched pairs- individual differences accounted for
  • Extraneous variables controlled
  • Objective research- brain scan
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50
Q

Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the genetic basis of abnormality

A

Researchers carried out twin studies. The studies enabled them to establish whether specific abnormalities have genetic links by comparing concordance rates fro MZ’s & DZ’s. Both sets of twins share the same environment but only MZ’s share the same genes. If a disorder has a genetic basis we would expect the concordance rates to be higher for the MZ twins. For example Gottesmans research shows that for MZ twins the concordance rates for schizophrenia are 48% compared to 17% for DZ twins. Shows some evidence for a genetic link.

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51
Q

Identify research that supports the genetic basis of abnormality

A

Gottesmans research shows that for MZ twins the concordance rates for schizophrenia are 48% compared to 17% for DZ twins. Shows some evidence for a genetic link.

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52
Q

Founder of Psychodynamic approach

A

Sigmund Freud

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53
Q

What did Sigmund Freud do

A

Began career as doctor of medicine and realised that some of his patients symptoms such as paralysis and severe headaches had no physical cause. He proposed that such physical symptoms were caused by deep rooted psychological conflict within the unconscious mind

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54
Q

Psychodynamic approach explanation

A

All behaviour normal and abnormal Freud believed derived from unconscious forces and the dynamics of personality structures

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55
Q

What did Sigmund Freud believe led to development of psychological abnormality

A

Poor quality early relationships and traumatic childhood experiences

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56
Q

3 key features to explain Freud’s original theory of psychodynamic approach to abnormal behaviour

A

Model of the personality
Stages of psychosexual development
Defence mechanisms

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57
Q

What is the ‘id’?

A

It is based on pleasure principle and present from birth
Unconscious state of mind- instinctive aspect of personality
Demands satisfaction and will not tolerate delay of wishes

Libido= sexual energy

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58
Q

What does the id do

A

A seething mass of contradictory desires oblivious to reason and morality

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59
Q

What is the ego (psychodynamic approach)

A

Based on reality principle
Child learns there are consequences of his/her actions

Partly conscious partly unconscious aware of desires of the ID and outside world

Rational and calculating developing through experience of outside world

Balances demands of the ID and superego

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60
Q

What is the super-ego (psychodynamic approach)

A

Based on morality principle
The relentless judge
Voice of parents/society formed from experiences with parents
Makes us feel guilty and rewards with pride if go along with restrictions

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61
Q

Briefly describe the ID, ego, and super-ego

A

ID- unconscious, instinctive
Ego- conscious, aware of desires of ID + Super-ego, reality principle.
Super-ego - conscience, sense of morality. voice of parents, determine guilt or pride depending whether followed restrictions

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62
Q

Describe the different type of egos

A

Strong ego- well adjusted who can cope with demands of the ID and superego

Unchecked ID impulses- if unchecked ID impulses might be expressed in destructive way

Too powerful superego- super-ego might overpower the ID and person deprived of any social pleasure

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63
Q

What type of Ego would a person suffering from OCD have

A

Too powerful ego- obsessively cleaning

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64
Q

What type of Ego would a person suffering from ADHD have

A

Unchecked ID impulses

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65
Q

Simply describe the model of the personality

A

ID (devil)
Super-ego (angel)
Ego (you)

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66
Q

Examples of psychological disorders that might be caused by Unchecked Impulses

A

ADHD
Tourettes
Psychopathy- lack empathy

67
Q

Examples of psychological disorders that might be caused by Too powerful super-ego

A 
OCD
Anorexia
baleimia
Anxiety
Anhedonia
68
Q

Name the stages of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A 
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
69
Q

Describe the Oral stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

Approx age- 0-18 months
Focus of organ pleasure- Mouth
Key experiences- Feeding, biting

70
Q

Describe the Anal stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

Approx age- 18-36 months
Focus of organ pleasure- Anus
Key experiences- Toilet training

71
Q

Describe the Phallic stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

Approx age- 3-6 yrs
Focus of organ pleasure- Genitals
Key experiences- Sexual Development, desire for mother, oedipus complex, gender identity

72
Q

Describe the Latency stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

Approx age- 6yrs-puberty

Key experience- sexual feelings towards others

73
Q

Describe the Genital stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

Approx age- Puberty-Maturity

Key experiences- Onset of adult sexuality and relationships

74
Q

What is meant by fixation in a psychosexualstage

A

Stuck in a stage of development and not able to move from one stage to another

75
Q

Links between Model of the personality and stages of psychosexual development

A

Dominant super-ego leads to feelings of guilt over pleasure (anxiety, depression)
Ego fails to balance competing demands of ID and superego
Dominance of the ID may lead to psychopathy.

76
Q

Results of oral fixation

A

Overdependent in relationships
smoking
drinking
eating

77
Q

Results of Anal fixation

A

OCD- aware behaviour is abnormal
OCDD- no desire to change behaviour
hygiene
cleanliness

78
Q

Results of Phallic fixation

A

High sexual activity
fear of phallic symbols (e.g. snakes)
Lack of sexuality

79
Q

What do defence mechanisms do?

A

Defence mechanisms protect our conscious self from the anxiety produced by the unconscious intra-psychic conflict by denying or distorting reality

80
Q

Name the defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach include

A 
Repression
Projection
Denial
Regression
Displacement
Sublimation
81
Q

Example of displacement defence mechanism

A

Little Hans:
Phobia of castration by father displaced feelings towards dad onto horse
Oedipus complex

82
Q

Example of repression defence mechanism

A

Little Hans:
sexual desire for mother

Adams
Heterosexual men
reaction formation- actually attracted men

83
Q

Describe Little hans case

A

Little hans sexually attracted to mother, use to frequently touch his genitalia. Father threatened to castrate him. Phobia of castration developed. Horse resembled father (moustache, glasses e.t.c). Little hans displaced feelings of phobia of dad onto horse. Phobia of horse developed.

84
Q

Describe Adams et al (1996)

A

35 homophobic men, 29 non homophobic
measured on questionnaire
Sexual arousal measure using a penile plethysmography
No differences in arousal between heterosexual and lesbian scenes between the 2 groups
When shown gay scenes 88% of homophobic men had erections only 33% of the non-homophobes did.
Reaction formation- actually attracted to men

85
Q

Explain stimulus generalisation

A

The tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses to objects similar to the conditioned stimulus

86
Q

Name the key features of the cognitive approach

A

Environmental stimulus
Cognitive appraisal
Behavioural response

87
Q

Cognitive approach example

A

Environmental stimulus- stuck in a lift
Cognitive appraisal ‘ wait for help’/ ‘we’ll never get out alive’
Behavioural response ‘patience’/ panic (claustrophobia)

88
Q

Assumptions of cognitive approach

A

Human behaviour is heavily influenced by schemata and relate to how we see ourselves

Schemata develop on the basis of early experience

Negative schemata or core beliefs activate negative thoughts

89
Q

Name the cognitive biases

A

Minimisation
Maximisation
Selective abstraction
All or nothing thinking

90
Q

Example of minimisation for depressed person

A

Minimising success in life e.g. attributing a good exam result to luck on the day

91
Q

Example of maximisation for depressed person

A

Maximising the importance of even trivial failures. For instance failing to complete a difficult sudoku puzzle

92
Q

Example of selective abstraction for depressed person

A

Focusing on only the negative aspects of life and ignoring the wider picture

93
Q

Example of All or nothing thinking for depressed person

A

A tendency to see life in terms of black and white, no middle ground either a success or failure

94
Q

Describe Ellis’ ABC model of irrational thinking

A

A- activating event
B- Beliefs either rational or irrational thoughts
C- Consequences either un/desirable emotions
leads to Desirable or undesirable behaviour

95
Q

Explain Beck’s negative triad

A

Attributions can be internal or external
Attributions can be specific or global
Attributions can be stable or unstable

96
Q

Example of a healthy person in Beck’s triad

A

“it was a hard paper”- external

“maybe it was just the exam”- specific

“next time I will improve its the first exam”- unstable

97
Q

Example of a depressed person in Beck’s triad

A

“I’m stupid”- internal

98
Q

qualities of a depressed person in Beck’s triad

A

Internal
Global
Stable

Potential depressives tend to attribute failure to internal, global, stable cases

99
Q

When may ECT be an affective treatment for patients

A

When they are not responsive to other therapies

Risk of sucide

100
Q

Side effects of ECT

A 
Bone fractures (until muscle relaxants introduced)
Severe memory loss (until unilateral ECT introduced)
101
Q

Ethical issues of ECT

A

Strength- Usually prohibited if patient is capable of deciding and refuses treatment
Weakness- severely depressed people may be incapable of giving informed consent
Weakness- History of abuse in mental hospitals

102
Q

Name some of the criticisms of drugs

A

Revolving door effect:

  • take drug + bad side effects
  • stops taking drugs
  • symptoms of disorder come back
  • readmitted to hospital
103
Q

Evaluation of drugs (pro’s)

A

Pro’s:

Chlorpromazine reduces symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations
Clozapine have fewer side effects
More humane than ECT and frontal labotomy

104
Q

Evaluation of drugs (cons)

A

Con’s:

Drugs only effective for 50-60% of patients
symptoms return in about 80% of patients
only 60-70% of depressed people respond
Drugs don’t cure depression they target biological changes associated with depression
May be effected by placebo effect
Side effects - movement disorders (chlorpromazine), lowers no. of white blood cells (Clozapine) violent outbursts (SSRI’s)
Can’t refuse treatment in mental institutions
not able to give informed consent

105
Q

Describe Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

A

They stop all the monoamines being broken down so that levels build up

106
Q

What does MAOI stand for

A

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

107
Q

What do Tricyclics do

A

Tricyclics prevent serotonin or noradrenaline being reabsorbed after it has a crossed a synapse again increasing the level of these substances.

108
Q

What does SSRI do

A

SSRI such as prozac and Seoxat stop serotonin being reabsorbed and broken down after it has crossed a synapse
NRI’s (noradrenaline repute inhibitors) do the same with noradrenaline.

109
Q

Examples of SRRI’s

A

Sexoat and Prozac

110
Q

Name 3 Antidepressants

A

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Tricyclics
Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors

111
Q

What does Chlorpromazine do

A

Used to alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder
Blocks the D2 receptor

112
Q

URAP (antidepressants)

A

U- treating depression
R- Decreased availability of serotonin in the brain leads to depression
A- Increase the availability of serotonin in the brain
P- Depends on the type of antidepressant

113
Q

2 examples of biological treatments for Abnormality

A

Drug therapy

ECT

114
Q

Name the 3 types of drugs in Drug therapy treatment for abnormality

A

Antidepressants
Antipsychotics
Anxiolytics

115
Q

URAP (ECT)

A

U- To treat schizophrenia
R- the shocks somehow change levels of neurotransmitters in the brain
A- redress neurotransmitter levels are out of balance, increase availability of serotonin
P- 70-130 volts shocks, lasts half a second, usually unilateral (electrode on temple on non-dominant side) Current induces convulsions lasting 1 minute. Anaesthetic and muscle relaxants used.

116
Q

What did Buchan do

A

Placebo group and ECT group

117
Q

What did Sacheim do

A

Only ECT group, generalised

118
Q

What do SSRI’s and Tricyclics have in common

A

Both block reuptake

119
Q

How do SSRI’s and tricyclics differ

A

SSRI’s only target serotonin whereas tricyclics target serotonin AND noradrenaline.

120
Q

URAP (Antipsychotics)

A

U-Schizophrenia
R- Excessive dopamine activity causes schizophrenia
A- Decrease amount of dopamine activity
P- By Blocking on dopamine receptors

121
Q

What is a Axon?

A

Way out for electrical impulse

122
Q

What is a Dendrite

A

Way in for electrical impulse

123
Q

What does an electrical impulse travel along

A

Axon to the vesicles

124
Q

What do the vesicles do

A

They move towards the pre-synpatic membrane where they release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap

125
Q

How do the neurotransmitters get to the dendrite?

A

They bind to the receptors on the post-synaptic membrane of an adjacent neurone causing an electrical impulse to revel along its dendrite

126
Q

What happens when the neurotransmitter is bound to the receptors

A

They can be removed from the synapse

127
Q

What 2 ways can the neurotransmitter be removed

A

By reuptake- the neurone which produced the NT’s has a pump which can suck them back

By enzymes- it can destroy them

128
Q

What do Tricyclics do?

A

Block process of re-uptake

Keeps serotonin/noradrenaline in synapse for longer

129
Q

What do SSRI’s do

A

Stops reabsorption of serotonin

130
Q

What do MAOI’s do?

A

Kill envy,es that swallow serotonin/noradrenaline

131
Q

What are anxiolytics used to treat?

A

anxiety disorders

132
Q

What are antipsychotics used to treat?

A

Schizophrenia

133
Q

Who conducted the Social learning theory

A

Mineka

134
Q

What did the social learning theory show

A

Study of monkeys showed how a phobia could be developed through observation alone

135
Q

Results of SLT

A

Young monkeys raised by parents who already had a fear of snakes did not automatically acquire this fear themselves

136
Q

Mineka’s findings (SLT)

A

That the fear was not genetically inherited however the monkeys who had the opportunity to observe their parents showing fearful reaction to real and toy snakes did acquire an intense and persistent fear

137
Q

Conclusion of Mineka (SLT)

A

Monkeys that OBSERVED parent’s reaction acquired the fear

138
Q

Mineka’s study supports what

A

Phobias are learnt through observation not genetically inherited

139
Q

Evaluation of Mineka (SLT)

A

Ignores cognition
Focus’ on environment only but there is evidence that genes are also important - Mcguffin
Behaviourists say the symptoms are the disorder so nothing is gained by looking at psychological and physical causes

Whereas Psychodynamic approach says you have to treat the underlying problems not just symptoms

140
Q

Describe Little Albert case

A

11 month old child with parental consent. Couple of months earlier his response to stimuli (fluffy animal rat, rabbit e.t.c) had been tested. Only thing he showed fear of was the loud noise when a hammer struck a iron bar behind his head (UCR)

Then Albert was introduced to a tame rat (NS) and showed no fear but when reaching out for the rat the experimenter hit the metal bar (UCS) the noise upset Albert and made him fear to touch the rat.

141
Q

Name research into classical conditioning and phobias

A

Little Albert by Watson and Raynor

142
Q

Watson and Raynor’s findings

A

Showed that an association had been formed between touching the white rat and fear of the noise. The conditioned fear of the rat then became generalised to other stimuli that resembled rat (fluffy things)

Parents withdrew Albert before W+R had chance to try extinguish fear to original response.

143
Q

Explanation of biological approach

A

All behaviour normal and abnormal is produced through learning and experience.

144
Q

What did skinner say about Operant conditioning

A

Our behaviour is influenced by the consequences of our actions

Reinforcement (positive and negative) strengthens behaviour

Punishment weakens behaviour

145
Q

Define Phobia

A

Phobia includes going to great lengths to avoid the feared object

146
Q

How is phobias explained using operant conditioning

A

Strengthening behaviour by avoiding the subject (negative reinforcement as taking thing away)

so phobia is maintained

147
Q

Who created Social learning theory

A

Bandura

148
Q

What does SLT state

A

We learn by observing role models

We are more likely to imitate role models whom we see being rewarded for their behaviour

149
Q

Example of SLT and OC

A

Anorexia:

SLT:
People learn to diet from seeing and reading about fashion models

They are encouraged to copy models diets as the models enjoy glamorous lifestyle (vicarious reinforcement)

OC:

By not eating you feel lighter (reward) you continue to do this to feel rewarded (OC)

Praise acts as positive reinforcement.

150
Q

Criticism of psychodynamic approach

A

When symptoms are treated without the underlying problem

Behaviourist criticise that the symptoms are the disorders

151
Q

What does Repression mean as a defence mechanism?

A

Prevents unacceptable desires, emotions, motivations. they remain unconscious an influence behaviours we are unaware of

152
Q

Example of repression

A

Person who is normally placid acts in a violent way towards someone without recollection

153
Q

Define projection as a defence mechanism

A

When peoples own unacceptable faults are attributed to someone else

154
Q

Example of Projection

A

Accusing someone else of being angry when its actually you feeling that way

155
Q

Define Denial as a defence mechanism

A

People sometimes refuse to believe events or don’t admit feelings that could provoke anxiety

156
Q

Example of denial

A

An alcoholic may not admit that they are dependant on alcohol

157
Q

Define Regression as a defence mechanism

A

Sometimes people respond to anxiety by behaving childishly which may have been effective as a child. Returning to a type of behaviour when they suffer a traumatic experience

158
Q

Example of Regression

A

A 9 year old child whose parents are getting divorced may revert to thumb sucking or bed wetting

159
Q

Define displacement as a defence mechanism

A

Diverting emotions onto something else because the emotions can’t be expressed to the person concerned

160
Q

Example of displacement

A

Little Hans case study

A child who feels angry towards parents may revert to bullying a weaker child at school

161
Q

Define Sublimation as a defence mechanism

A

Diverting emotions onto something else (not someone). Socially acceptable form of displacement and encouraged in society

162
Q

Example of sublimation

A

Playing a vigorous sport as an expression of aggressive drives and feelings.

163
Q

Define reaction formation as a defence mechanism

A

Consciously feeling or thinking the opposite of what you truly or unconsciously feel or think

Psychology AS (7 decks)

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