Abnormality Flashcards
1
Q
What does the term abnormal mean?
A
Deviating from the average (norm). Any rare behaviour or ability is abnormal.
2
Q
3 ways of defining abnormality
A
- deviation from social norms
- failure to function adequately
- deviation from ideal mental health
3
Q
Social norms are explicit or implicit
A
Both
Implicit= unspoken Explicit= spoken
4
Q
Example of implicit social norm
A
Standing too close to someone
5
Q
Example of a explicit social norm
A
Laws
Signs (standing to the right on escalator)
6
Q
People who violate social norms are often considered
A
deviant or abnormal
7
Q
Name some limitations of the deviation from social norms definition
A
Eccentric or abnormal abnormal or criminal role of context change with the times risk of abuse cultural issues
8
Q
Limitations of the failure to function adequately definition
A
Not the whole picture
Exceptions to the rule
Direction of causality: cultural issues
9
Q
Define failure to function adequately
A
A person with a psychological disorder often experiences distress and the inability to cope with everyday activities like work or social activities.
10
Q
Who put forward the option of ideal mental health
A
Marie Jahoda in 1958
11
Q
What did Marie Jahoda do?
A
She identified six major criteria for optimal living which she believed promoted psychological health and wellbeing. Anyone lacking these qualities would be vulnerable to mental disorder in her opinion.
12
Q
Name the six criteria by Marie Jahoda of ideal mental health
A
- Positive Attitudes
- Self-actualisation of one’s potential
- Resistance to stress
- Personal Autonomy
- Accurate perception of reality
- Adapting to and mastering the environment
13
Q
What are social norms?
A
Social norms are explicit and implicit rules that society has about acceptable behaviours, values and beliefs
14
Q
Define implicit rules
A
convention within society, unspoken rules
15
Q
Define explicit rules
A
Laws, if violated behaviour seen as criminal
16
Q
Whats taken into account by doctors when diagnosing a disorder?
A
Failure to function- occupational and social functioning
17
Q
What does DSM stand for?
A
Diagnostic and statistical manual
18
Q
What does GAF stand for?
A
GAF- Global assessment of functioning scale
19
Q
What is no longer part of the DSM
A
GAF scale
20
Q
Examples of impairment to function adequately
A
Depressed mood Mild insomnia Suicidal ideation Severe obsessional rituals Danger of hurting oneself or others
21
Q
Name the 3 limitations associated with the social norms definition
A
Changes with time
Risk of Abuse
Cultural Issues
22
Q
What happened to the DSM in 1973
A
homosexuality removed and replaced by the category sexual orientation disturbance. Homosexuality no longer seen as an abnormality.
Limited as changes with time as fails to provide you with a list of behaviours which are abnormal at all times.
23
Q
Example of cultural issues limitation of social norms
A
In African and Indian cultures hearing voices is seen as normal and seen as a way of contacting loved ones.
24
Q
Example of changes with time limitations of social norm
A
homosexuality removed from DSM, used to be seen as abnormal behaviour
25
Example of Risk of abuse limitation of social norm
In some countries dissidents may be classed as mentally ill due to their opposing views to the ruling party- seen as social control.
26
Limitations of the failure to function adequately definition
Dysfunction is not an indicator of all disorders. Psychological disorders may not prevent a person from functioning adequately. People can maintain adequate functioning despite clinical levels of a disorder. The psychopath can appear normal most of the time and show no distress over his/her behaviour.
27
Identify and explain one definition of abnormality
Deviation from social norms, not understanding implicit social norms like invading peoples personal space and laughing during inappropriate times to the affect the situation.
28
Explain a limitation of deviation from social norms
Behaviour can be seen as eccentric rather than abnormal, only some behaviours can be regarded as pathological.
29
Name the 4 approaches to abnormality
- Biological/Physiological
- Psychodynamic
- Cognitive
- Behavioural
30
Describe the biological approach to abnormality
All behaviour normal and abnormal is rooted in our biology, particularly the brain
31
Identify the 3 key features of the biological approach
Genetics
Biochemistry
Brain Structure
32
Define concordant
Twins both develop disease
33
Define discordant
Only one twin develop disease
34
If one twin develops a disease are they concordant or discordant
discordant
35
Explain the twin studies
the presence or absence of a disease in twins can indicate level of disease causation which can be credited to an individual genetic make up rather than environmental exposures
36
Define monozygotic
Identical twins
37
Define dizygotic
(non identical) 2 different fertilised eggs, share 50% of genes like siblings
38
Describe the adoption studies
Twins are more likely to share environment. If twins adopted they are exposed to different environment to sibling. Adoptions tidies look at a disease between genetically identically related twins in comparison to adoptive relatives. If concordance rate is higher in a adoptive then environmental factors are important.
39
What 2 studies investigate genetic explanations of abnormality?
Twin studies and Adoption studies
40
Outline the key features of the biological approach to psychopathology
Genetics
Biochemistry
Brain Structure
41
Explain the brain structure feature in the biological approach
Abnormalities are because of changes in the structure of the brain e.g. the size or function of the brain, enlarged ventricles
42
Explain the Genetics feature in the biological approach
Abnormalities have a genetic component and can be inherited
Concordance rate
Twins studies
43
Explain the biochemistry feature in the biological approach
Abnormalities caused by an imbalance of chemicals in the brain too much or too little of a hormone or neurotransmitter which can affect mood.
44
The higher the concordance rate the ...
more likely both twins will suffer from the same disorder
45
Weakness of the biochemical explanation
Issue of cause and effect
46
Evaluate the genetics feature in the biological approach
Concordance rate is not 100% in MZ twins therefore genes is not entirely responsible and other facts contribute to the development of mental disorders
47
Why are genes not entirely responsible for determining whether an individual develops a mental disorder or not
Concordance rate in MZ twins is NOT 100% so other factors must contribute.
48
Identify one specific brain area where abnormality has been identified in schizophrenic patients
Paralimbic cortex -goldsteins evidence
49
Identify one methodological strength of Goldsteins research
- Matched pairs- individual differences accounted for
- Extraneous variables controlled
- Objective research- brain scan
50
Explain one way in which psychologists have investigated the genetic basis of abnormality
Researchers carried out twin studies. The studies enabled them to establish whether specific abnormalities have genetic links by comparing concordance rates fro MZ's & DZ's. Both sets of twins share the same environment but only MZ's share the same genes. If a disorder has a genetic basis we would expect the concordance rates to be higher for the MZ twins. For example Gottesmans research shows that for MZ twins the concordance rates for schizophrenia are 48% compared to 17% for DZ twins. Shows some evidence for a genetic link.
51
Identify research that supports the genetic basis of abnormality
Gottesmans research shows that for MZ twins the concordance rates for schizophrenia are 48% compared to 17% for DZ twins. Shows some evidence for a genetic link.
52
Founder of Psychodynamic approach
Sigmund Freud
53
What did Sigmund Freud do
Began career as doctor of medicine and realised that some of his patients symptoms such as paralysis and severe headaches had no physical cause. He proposed that such physical symptoms were caused by deep rooted psychological conflict within the unconscious mind
54
Psychodynamic approach explanation
All behaviour normal and abnormal Freud believed derived from unconscious forces and the dynamics of personality structures
55
What did Sigmund Freud believe led to development of psychological abnormality
Poor quality early relationships and traumatic childhood experiences
56
3 key features to explain Freud's original theory of psychodynamic approach to abnormal behaviour
Model of the personality
Stages of psychosexual development
Defence mechanisms
57
What is the 'id'?
It is based on pleasure principle and present from birth
Unconscious state of mind- instinctive aspect of personality
Demands satisfaction and will not tolerate delay of wishes
Libido= sexual energy
58
What does the id do
A seething mass of contradictory desires oblivious to reason and morality
59
What is the ego (psychodynamic approach)
Based on reality principle
Child learns there are consequences of his/her actions
Partly conscious partly unconscious aware of desires of the ID and outside world
Rational and calculating developing through experience of outside world
Balances demands of the ID and superego
60
What is the super-ego (psychodynamic approach)
Based on morality principle
The relentless judge
Voice of parents/society formed from experiences with parents
Makes us feel guilty and rewards with pride if go along with restrictions
61
Briefly describe the ID, ego, and super-ego
ID- unconscious, instinctive
Ego- conscious, aware of desires of ID + Super-ego, reality principle.
Super-ego - conscience, sense of morality. voice of parents, determine guilt or pride depending whether followed restrictions
62
Describe the different type of egos
Strong ego- well adjusted who can cope with demands of the ID and superego
Unchecked ID impulses- if unchecked ID impulses might be expressed in destructive way
Too powerful superego- super-ego might overpower the ID and person deprived of any social pleasure
63
What type of Ego would a person suffering from OCD have
Too powerful ego- obsessively cleaning
64
What type of Ego would a person suffering from ADHD have
Unchecked ID impulses
65
Simply describe the model of the personality
ID (devil)
Super-ego (angel)
Ego (you)
66
Examples of psychological disorders that might be caused by Unchecked Impulses
ADHD
Tourettes
Psychopathy- lack empathy
67
Examples of psychological disorders that might be caused by Too powerful super-ego
```
OCD
Anorexia
baleimia
Anxiety
Anhedonia
```
68
Name the stages of Freud's psychosexual stages of development
```
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
```
69
Describe the Oral stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development
Approx age- 0-18 months
Focus of organ pleasure- Mouth
Key experiences- Feeding, biting
70
Describe the Anal stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development
Approx age- 18-36 months
Focus of organ pleasure- Anus
Key experiences- Toilet training
71
Describe the Phallic stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development
Approx age- 3-6 yrs
Focus of organ pleasure- Genitals
Key experiences- Sexual Development, desire for mother, oedipus complex, gender identity
72
Describe the Latency stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development
Approx age- 6yrs-puberty
| Key experience- sexual feelings towards others
73
Describe the Genital stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development
Approx age- Puberty-Maturity
| Key experiences- Onset of adult sexuality and relationships
74
What is meant by fixation in a psychosexualstage
Stuck in a stage of development and not able to move from one stage to another
75
Links between Model of the personality and stages of psychosexual development
Dominant super-ego leads to feelings of guilt over pleasure (anxiety, depression)
Ego fails to balance competing demands of ID and superego
Dominance of the ID may lead to psychopathy.
76
Results of oral fixation
Overdependent in relationships
smoking
drinking
eating
77
Results of Anal fixation
OCD- aware behaviour is abnormal
OCDD- no desire to change behaviour
hygiene
cleanliness
78
Results of Phallic fixation
High sexual activity
fear of phallic symbols (e.g. snakes)
Lack of sexuality
79
What do defence mechanisms do?
Defence mechanisms protect our conscious self from the anxiety produced by the unconscious intra-psychic conflict by denying or distorting reality
80
Name the defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach include
```
Repression
Projection
Denial
Regression
Displacement
Sublimation
```
81
Example of displacement defence mechanism
Little Hans:
Phobia of castration by father displaced feelings towards dad onto horse
Oedipus complex
82
Example of repression defence mechanism
Little Hans:
sexual desire for mother
Adams
Heterosexual men
reaction formation- actually attracted men
83
Describe Little hans case
Little hans sexually attracted to mother, use to frequently touch his genitalia. Father threatened to castrate him. Phobia of castration developed. Horse resembled father (moustache, glasses e.t.c). Little hans displaced feelings of phobia of dad onto horse. Phobia of horse developed.
84
Describe Adams et al (1996)
35 homophobic men, 29 non homophobic
measured on questionnaire
Sexual arousal measure using a penile plethysmography
No differences in arousal between heterosexual and lesbian scenes between the 2 groups
When shown gay scenes 88% of homophobic men had erections only 33% of the non-homophobes did.
Reaction formation- actually attracted to men
85
Explain stimulus generalisation
The tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses to objects similar to the conditioned stimulus
86
Name the key features of the cognitive approach
Environmental stimulus
Cognitive appraisal
Behavioural response
87
Cognitive approach example
Environmental stimulus- stuck in a lift
Cognitive appraisal ' wait for help'/ 'we'll never get out alive'
Behavioural response 'patience'/ panic (claustrophobia)
88
Assumptions of cognitive approach
Human behaviour is heavily influenced by schemata and relate to how we see ourselves
Schemata develop on the basis of early experience
Negative schemata or core beliefs activate negative thoughts
89
Name the cognitive biases
Minimisation
Maximisation
Selective abstraction
All or nothing thinking
90
Example of minimisation for depressed person
Minimising success in life e.g. attributing a good exam result to luck on the day
91
Example of maximisation for depressed person
Maximising the importance of even trivial failures. For instance failing to complete a difficult sudoku puzzle
92
Example of selective abstraction for depressed person
Focusing on only the negative aspects of life and ignoring the wider picture
93
Example of All or nothing thinking for depressed person
A tendency to see life in terms of black and white, no middle ground either a success or failure
94
Describe Ellis' ABC model of irrational thinking
A- activating event
B- Beliefs either rational or irrational thoughts
C- Consequences either un/desirable emotions
leads to Desirable or undesirable behaviour
95
Explain Beck's negative triad
Attributions can be internal or external
Attributions can be specific or global
Attributions can be stable or unstable
96
Example of a healthy person in Beck's triad
"it was a hard paper"- external
"maybe it was just the exam"- specific
"next time I will improve its the first exam"- unstable
97
Example of a depressed person in Beck's triad
"I'm stupid"- internal
98
qualities of a depressed person in Beck's triad
Internal
Global
Stable
Potential depressives tend to attribute failure to internal, global, stable cases
99
When may ECT be an affective treatment for patients
When they are not responsive to other therapies
| Risk of sucide
100
Side effects of ECT
```
Bone fractures (until muscle relaxants introduced)
Severe memory loss (until unilateral ECT introduced)
```
101
Ethical issues of ECT
Strength- Usually prohibited if patient is capable of deciding and refuses treatment
Weakness- severely depressed people may be incapable of giving informed consent
Weakness- History of abuse in mental hospitals
102
Name some of the criticisms of drugs
Revolving door effect:
- take drug + bad side effects
- stops taking drugs
- symptoms of disorder come back
- readmitted to hospital
103
Evaluation of drugs (pro's)
Pro's:
Chlorpromazine reduces symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations
Clozapine have fewer side effects
More humane than ECT and frontal labotomy
104
Evaluation of drugs (cons)
Con's:
Drugs only effective for 50-60% of patients
symptoms return in about 80% of patients
only 60-70% of depressed people respond
Drugs don't cure depression they target biological changes associated with depression
May be effected by placebo effect
Side effects - movement disorders (chlorpromazine), lowers no. of white blood cells (Clozapine) violent outbursts (SSRI's)
Can't refuse treatment in mental institutions
not able to give informed consent
105
Describe Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
They stop all the monoamines being broken down so that levels build up
106
What does MAOI stand for
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
107
What do Tricyclics do
Tricyclics prevent serotonin or noradrenaline being reabsorbed after it has a crossed a synapse again increasing the level of these substances.
108
What does SSRI do
SSRI such as prozac and Seoxat stop serotonin being reabsorbed and broken down after it has crossed a synapse
NRI's (noradrenaline repute inhibitors) do the same with noradrenaline.
109
Examples of SRRI's
Sexoat and Prozac
110
Name 3 Antidepressants
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
Tricyclics
Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors
111
What does Chlorpromazine do
Used to alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder
Blocks the D2 receptor
112
URAP (antidepressants)
U- treating depression
R- Decreased availability of serotonin in the brain leads to depression
A- Increase the availability of serotonin in the brain
P- Depends on the type of antidepressant
113
2 examples of biological treatments for Abnormality
Drug therapy
| ECT
114
Name the 3 types of drugs in Drug therapy treatment for abnormality
Antidepressants
Antipsychotics
Anxiolytics
115
URAP (ECT)
U- To treat schizophrenia
R- the shocks somehow change levels of neurotransmitters in the brain
A- redress neurotransmitter levels are out of balance, increase availability of serotonin
P- 70-130 volts shocks, lasts half a second, usually unilateral (electrode on temple on non-dominant side) Current induces convulsions lasting 1 minute. Anaesthetic and muscle relaxants used.
116
What did Buchan do
Placebo group and ECT group
117
What did Sacheim do
Only ECT group, generalised
118
What do SSRI's and Tricyclics have in common
Both block reuptake
119
How do SSRI's and tricyclics differ
SSRI's only target serotonin whereas tricyclics target serotonin AND noradrenaline.
120
URAP (Antipsychotics)
U-Schizophrenia
R- Excessive dopamine activity causes schizophrenia
A- Decrease amount of dopamine activity
P- By Blocking on dopamine receptors
121
What is a Axon?
Way out for electrical impulse
122
What is a Dendrite
Way in for electrical impulse
123
What does an electrical impulse travel along
Axon to the vesicles
124
What do the vesicles do
They move towards the pre-synpatic membrane where they release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap
125
How do the neurotransmitters get to the dendrite?
They bind to the receptors on the post-synaptic membrane of an adjacent neurone causing an electrical impulse to revel along its dendrite
126
What happens when the neurotransmitter is bound to the receptors
They can be removed from the synapse
127
What 2 ways can the neurotransmitter be removed
By reuptake- the neurone which produced the NT's has a pump which can suck them back
By enzymes- it can destroy them
128
What do Tricyclics do?
Block process of re-uptake
| Keeps serotonin/noradrenaline in synapse for longer
129
What do SSRI's do
Stops reabsorption of serotonin
130
What do MAOI's do?
Kill envy,es that swallow serotonin/noradrenaline
131
What are anxiolytics used to treat?
anxiety disorders
132
What are antipsychotics used to treat?
Schizophrenia
133
Who conducted the Social learning theory
Mineka
134
What did the social learning theory show
Study of monkeys showed how a phobia could be developed through observation alone
135
Results of SLT
Young monkeys raised by parents who already had a fear of snakes did not automatically acquire this fear themselves
136
Mineka's findings (SLT)
That the fear was not genetically inherited however the monkeys who had the opportunity to observe their parents showing fearful reaction to real and toy snakes did acquire an intense and persistent fear
137
Conclusion of Mineka (SLT)
Monkeys that OBSERVED parent's reaction acquired the fear
138
Mineka's study supports what
Phobias are learnt through observation not genetically inherited
139
Evaluation of Mineka (SLT)
Ignores cognition
Focus' on environment only but there is evidence that genes are also important - Mcguffin
Behaviourists say the symptoms are the disorder so nothing is gained by looking at psychological and physical causes
Whereas Psychodynamic approach says you have to treat the underlying problems not just symptoms
140
Describe Little Albert case
11 month old child with parental consent. Couple of months earlier his response to stimuli (fluffy animal rat, rabbit e.t.c) had been tested. Only thing he showed fear of was the loud noise when a hammer struck a iron bar behind his head (UCR)
Then Albert was introduced to a tame rat (NS) and showed no fear but when reaching out for the rat the experimenter hit the metal bar (UCS) the noise upset Albert and made him fear to touch the rat.
141
Name research into classical conditioning and phobias
Little Albert by Watson and Raynor
142
Watson and Raynor's findings
Showed that an association had been formed between touching the white rat and fear of the noise. The conditioned fear of the rat then became generalised to other stimuli that resembled rat (fluffy things)
Parents withdrew Albert before W+R had chance to try extinguish fear to original response.
143
Explanation of biological approach
All behaviour normal and abnormal is produced through learning and experience.
144
What did skinner say about Operant conditioning
Our behaviour is influenced by the consequences of our actions
Reinforcement (positive and negative) strengthens behaviour
Punishment weakens behaviour
145
Define Phobia
Phobia includes going to great lengths to avoid the feared object
146
How is phobias explained using operant conditioning
Strengthening behaviour by avoiding the subject (negative reinforcement as taking thing away)
so phobia is maintained
147
Who created Social learning theory
Bandura
148
What does SLT state
We learn by observing role models
| We are more likely to imitate role models whom we see being rewarded for their behaviour
149
Example of SLT and OC
Anorexia:
SLT:
People learn to diet from seeing and reading about fashion models
They are encouraged to copy models diets as the models enjoy glamorous lifestyle (vicarious reinforcement)
OC:
By not eating you feel lighter (reward) you continue to do this to feel rewarded (OC)
Praise acts as positive reinforcement.
150
Criticism of psychodynamic approach
When symptoms are treated without the underlying problem
Behaviourist criticise that the symptoms are the disorders
151
What does Repression mean as a defence mechanism?
Prevents unacceptable desires, emotions, motivations. they remain unconscious an influence behaviours we are unaware of
152
Example of repression
Person who is normally placid acts in a violent way towards someone without recollection
153
Define projection as a defence mechanism
When peoples own unacceptable faults are attributed to someone else
154
Example of Projection
Accusing someone else of being angry when its actually you feeling that way
155
Define Denial as a defence mechanism
People sometimes refuse to believe events or don't admit feelings that could provoke anxiety
156
Example of denial
An alcoholic may not admit that they are dependant on alcohol
157
Define Regression as a defence mechanism
Sometimes people respond to anxiety by behaving childishly which may have been effective as a child. Returning to a type of behaviour when they suffer a traumatic experience
158
Example of Regression
A 9 year old child whose parents are getting divorced may revert to thumb sucking or bed wetting
159
Define displacement as a defence mechanism
Diverting emotions onto something else because the emotions can't be expressed to the person concerned
160
Example of displacement
Little Hans case study
A child who feels angry towards parents may revert to bullying a weaker child at school
161
Define Sublimation as a defence mechanism
Diverting emotions onto something else (not someone). Socially acceptable form of displacement and encouraged in society
162
Example of sublimation
Playing a vigorous sport as an expression of aggressive drives and feelings.
163
Define reaction formation as a defence mechanism
Consciously feeling or thinking the opposite of what you truly or unconsciously feel or think
