research methods Flashcards
AI research methods
1
Q
What are the four main research methods used by psychologists?
A
Experiments, Observation, Self-reporting, Case studies
2
Q
What does the experimental method study?
A
How variables affect outcomes
3
Q
What is a variable in the context of psychological experiments?
A
Anything that changes between two situations
4
Q
What is an independent groups design in experiments?
A
Participants are divided into two groups, each experiencing a different variable
5
Q
What is the repeated measures design in experiments?
A
All participants experience both variables in succession
6
Q
What is a matched pairs design?
A
Participants are matched on characteristics, creating two similar groups
7
Q
What is the difference between laboratory and field experiments?
A
Laboratory experiments are conducted in controlled environments, while field experiments are in natural settings
8
Q
What is a natural experiment?
A
An experiment where the variable changes naturally and the researcher studies the effects
9
Q
What is a quasi experiment?
A
An experiment that compares two variables that cannot be changed
10
Q
What does the observational method study?
A
Behaviour by examining how participants act in various situations
11
Q
What are behavioral categories in observational studies?
A
Predefined categories used to record and analyze specific behaviors
12
Q
What is event sampling?
A
Counting how many times a participant behaves in a certain way
13
Q
What is time sampling?
A
Recording participant behavior at regular time intervals
14
Q
What is the difference between naturalistic and controlled observations?
A
Naturalistic observations occur in real-life settings, while controlled observations are in artificial settings
15
Q
What is the difference between covert and overt observations?
A
Covert observations are made without participants’ knowledge, while overt observations are with participants’ awareness
16
Q
What is participant observation?
A
The researcher is actively involved in the situation being observed
17
Q
What is non-participant observation?
A
The researcher is not involved in the situation being observed
18
Q
What is a questionnaire?
A
A standardised list of questions for participants to answer
19
Q
What are closed questions in a questionnaire?
A
Questions with a fixed set of responses
20
Q
What are open questions in a questionnaire?
A
Questions that allow participants to respond in their own words
21
Q
What is a structured interview?
A
An interview with pre-set questions asked in the same order
22
Q
What is an unstructured interview?
A
An interview that allows for spontaneous discussion and follow-up questions
23
Q
What is a case study?
A
A detailed investigation of an individual, group, or event
24
Q
What is a longitudinal case study?
A
A case study that takes place over an extended time period
25
What is the aim of a study?
A description of what the researchers are investigating and why
26
What is an experimental hypothesis?
A prediction that changing the independent variable will cause a change in the dependent variable
27
What is a null hypothesis?
A prediction that changing the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable
28
What is the population in research?
The entire group the study is supposed to apply to
29
What is a sample in research?
A part of the population that is representative of the entire group
30
What is random sampling?
Selecting participants from a target population at random
31
What is systematic sampling?
Selecting participants at pre-set intervals from a target population
32
What is systematic sampling?
A sampling method that selects participants according to a numerical interval to prevent researcher bias.
33
What is a potential weakness of systematic sampling?
Unexpected bias due to certain characteristics occurring more or less frequently at specific intervals.
34
What is stratified sampling?
A method that divides the population into relevant groups and samples according to their percentages.
35
What is one strength of stratified sampling?
It yields a representative sample of the population as a whole.
36
What is a weakness of stratified sampling?
Requires accurate knowledge of the population breakdown to avoid bias.
37
Define opportunity sampling.
A method where participants are approached based on their availability.
38
Define volunteer sampling.
A method where participants self-select to take part in a study.
39
What is a strength of opportunity and volunteer sampling?
They are quick and easy methods of recruiting participants.
40
What is a weakness of opportunity and volunteer sampling?
The sample is likely to be unrepresentative of the broader population.
41
What is an independent variable?
A variable that is changed by researchers in an experiment.
42
What is a dependent variable?
A variable that is measured by researchers in an experiment.
43
What are extraneous variables?
Additional unwanted variables that may affect the results of an experiment.
44
What are confounding variables?
Extraneous variables that are not controlled for and can skew the results.
45
What does operationalisation of variables mean?
Clearly and measurably defining the variables in a study.
46
What is the purpose of a pilot study?
To conduct a practice run of the research project to identify problems before the full study.
47
What sections typically comprise a psychological report?
* Title
* Abstract
* Introduction
* Method
* Results
* Discussion
* Conclusion
* References
* Appendices
48
What is peer review?
A process of assessing the scientific credibility of a research paper before publication.
49
What is one criticism of peer review?
It can be biased due to relationships within a small academic community.
50
What does valid consent entail in psychological studies?
Participants are informed of the study's aims, risks, and their right to withdraw.
51
What is confidentiality in research?
Personal data about participants should not be disclosed without consent.
52
What is the difference between reliability and validity in studies?
Reliability refers to consistent results, while validity refers to accurately measuring what is intended.
53
What is test-retest reliability?
A method to assess reliability by giving the same test to the same person on two different occasions.
54
What is inter-observer reliability?
A measure of how consistently different observers assess the same behavior.
55
What is concurrent validity?
A measure of how closely the results of a new test correlate with those of a similar established test.
56
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which study findings apply outside of the environment in which the study was conducted.
57
What is concurrent validity?
It indicates that participants’ scores are correlated with a known accurate test.
58
Define face validity.
It refers to the extent to which a study appears to measure what it is supposed to measure at face value.
59
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which a study’s findings apply outside of the environment it was conducted in.
60
What does temporal validity refer to?
The degree to which the study’s results remain true over time.
61
What are extraneous variables?
Variables that can reduce the validity of a study.
62
What are demand characteristics?
Extraneous variables where the study's demands make participants behave in ways they wouldn't outside of the study.
63
How can demand characteristics be controlled in a study?
Using single-blind methods.
64
What are investigator effects?
Extraneous variables where the characteristics of the researcher affect the participant’s behaviour.
65
How can investigator effects be controlled?
Using double-blind methods.
66
Define participant variables.
Differences between participants that can affect the study's results.
67
What are situational variables?
Environmental factors that can affect the outcome of an experiment.
68
What is counterbalancing?
A method used in repeated measures experiments to control for task order effects.
69
How can psychological research impact the economy regarding attachment?
Bowlby’s hypothesis suggests that maternal separation can harm child development, affecting mothers' ability to work.
70
How does addressing mental disorders benefit the economy?
It improves people’s ability to work and reduces reliance on health services.
71
What are the strengths of quantitative data?
* Can be compared mathematically
* Enables objective analysis
72
What are the weaknesses of quantitative data?
* Less detailed
* May miss important context
73
Define content analysis.
A method for analyzing qualitative data by identifying coding units and quantifying them.
74
What is primary data?
Original data collected for a specific study.
75
What is secondary data?
Data from another study previously conducted.
76
What is a meta-analysis?
A study of studies that uses statistics to identify similarities and trends across several smaller studies.
77
What are measures of central tendency?
* Mean
* Median
* Mode
78
How is the mean calculated?
By adding all the numbers in a set and dividing by the total count.
79
What are the strengths of the mean?
* Uses all data
* Provides a precise average
80
What are the weaknesses of the mean?
* Can be skewed by extreme values
81
How is the median determined?
By arranging numbers in order and finding the middle value.
82
What are the strengths of the median?
* Not skewed by extreme values
83
What are the weaknesses of the median?
* May not represent the central tendency in small data sets
84
How is the mode defined?
The most commonly occurring number in a data set.
85
What are the strengths of the mode?
* Not affected by extreme values
* Useful for whole number data
86
What are the weaknesses of the mode?
* Does not consider all data
* May have multiple modes
87
Define range.
The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.
88
What are the strengths of the range?
* Easy to calculate
* Accounts for extreme values
89
What are the weaknesses of the range?
* Can be skewed by anomalies
* Does not show score distribution
90
What is standard deviation?
A measure of how much scores in a data set deviate from the mean.
91
What are the strengths of standard deviation?
* Less affected by extreme values
* Provides a more comprehensive measure of dispersion
92
What are the weaknesses of standard deviation?
* More complex to calculate than range
93
What does a percentage represent?
How much out of 100 something occurs.
94
What does standard deviation measure?
The average difference from the mean
## Footnote
Standard deviation is less likely to be skewed by a single freak score compared to the range.
95
What is the formula for calculating a percentage?
Percentage = (part/total) * 100
## Footnote
Example: 63 out of 82 participants passed the test, calculated as (63/82)*100 = 76.8%
96
How do you calculate percentage change?
Percentage change = [(new value - original value) / original value] * 100
## Footnote
Example: An increase from 80 to 88 marks represents a 10% increase.
97
What characterizes a normal distribution?
Majority of scores are on or near the mean and it is symmetrical
## Footnote
Normal distributions form a bell-shaped curve when plotted on a histogram.
98
What is a positively skewed distribution?
A distribution where the mean is greater than the median, due to a high score pulling the mean up
## Footnote
Most scores will be below the mean in a positively skewed distribution.
99
What does a correlation coefficient of +1 indicate?
Perfect positive correlation
## Footnote
When one variable increases, the other increases by the same amount.
100
What are the three types of data measurement?
* Nominal
* Ordinal
* Interval
## Footnote
Nominal involves discrete categories, ordinal involves ordered whole numbers, and interval includes standardised measurements.
101
What does a bar chart illustrate?
Discrete data categories for comparison
## Footnote
Categories are listed on the x-axis and results on the y-axis.
102
What is the purpose of inferential testing?
To determine if results are statistically significant
## Footnote
It assesses whether observed effects are due to the study rather than random chance.
103
What is a Type 1 error?
False positive: concluding an effect is real when it is not
## Footnote
This occurs when results fall within the 5% of fluke outcomes that appear significant.
104
What is the significance threshold commonly used in psychology?
<0.05
## Footnote
This indicates a less than 5% chance that the observed effect is due to luck.
105
What does the sign test calculate?
Statistical significance of differences between related pairs of nominal data
## Footnote
It focuses on the preferred sign (e.g., A or B) rather than the actual ratings.
106
What is the critical value in hypothesis testing?
A threshold used to determine statistical significance
## Footnote
If the observed value is equal to or less than the critical value, results are statistically significant.
107
What does a histogram represent?
Continuous or interval data
## Footnote
Unlike bar charts, histograms have no gaps between bars because data is continuous.
108
What is a negatively skewed distribution?
A distribution where the mean is less than the median, due to a low score pulling the mean down
## Footnote
Most scores will be above the mean in a negatively skewed distribution.
109
What does a correlation coefficient of 0 indicate?
No correlation
## Footnote
A change in one variable is totally independent of a change in the other.
110
What is a scattergram used for?
To illustrate the relationship between two variables
## Footnote
Each point represents a data point, with one variable on the x-axis and another on the y-axis.
111
What is the definition of nominal data?
Tallies of discrete categories
## Footnote
Example: Types of participants in a study (runners, swimmers).
112
What is the definition of ordinal data?
Whole numbers that can be ordered but are not precise measurements
## Footnote
Example: Rankings in a race.
113
What is the definition of interval data?
Standardised units of measurement, including decimals
## Footnote
Example: Weights in kg or heights in cm.
114
What is the purpose of a pie chart?
To illustrate how commonly different things occur relative to each other
## Footnote
Provides a visual representation of percentages.
115
What does an unrelated t-test assess?
Differences between two independent groups
## Footnote
It is used for interval data.
116
What does a Wilcoxon test assess?
Differences between related pairs of ordinal data
## Footnote
It is used when the data is related.
117
What does Spearman's rho measure?
Correlation between two ordinal variables
## Footnote
It is used when assessing the strength and direction of association.
118
What is Pearson's r used for?
To measure the correlation between two interval variables
## Footnote
It quantifies the degree to which a relationship exists.
