relationships

Question 1

define natural selection

Answer 1

• human behaviour is driven by the need to survive and reporduce. Both males and females need to make sure that they have children, and those children survive to adulthood.
• Genes that confer a reproductive advatnage will increase in the gene pool.

Question 2

define evolution

Answer 2

• the process of adaptation through natural selection

Question 3

what is sexual selection?

Answer 3

• involves the natural selection of characteristics increasing reproductive success.
• Reproductive success involves the production of healthy offspring, surviving to sexual maturity

Question 4

define intersexual selection

Answer 4

• memebers of one sex compete for access to the other sex leading to male-female dimprohism
• behaviours include the male /female strategies (see f7)

Question 5

define male-female dimorphism

Answer 5

• enhanced secondary sexual characteristics are selected for by both genders, leading to these becoming more common in the population
• Evolution explains SD as developing through the process of natural selection , as it gave an adaptive advantage increasing the survival into adulthood.

Question 6

Define intra sexual selection

Answer 6

• one sex chooses from available perspective mates according to attractiveness; genes that confer attractive qualities are more saleable.

Question 7

Define Anisogamy

Answer 7

• difference between the nature and amount of gametes: male and female sex cells.
• Egg vs sperm

Question 8

Outline the impact of attractiveness on male and female selection

Answer 8

males: Physical attractiveness in females is valued by males as an indicator of health and fertility. Qualities include large waist to hip ratio (around 0.7) , small waist (not carrying another man’s child) and rosy cheeks.
females: Look for characteristics linked to dominance - V Shaped Chest, tall and healthy.
Both value facial symmetery as it is the best predictor of body symmetry with women seeing males with symmetry as having genetic precision

Question 9

Name the male strategies used to attract females.

Answer 9

• courtship behaviours
• size
• sperm competition
• male guardging
• sneak copulation

Question 10

Describe:
- courtship behaviours
- size

male strategies

Answer 10

• Courtship behaviour: allow males to display genetic potential, through characteristics and resource abilities.
• Size: males evolved to be bigger , demonstrating strength for success in competition against other males.

Question 11

Describe:
- sperm competition
- mate guarding

Answer 11

• Sperm Competition: natural selection acted on males, making them more competitive by producing larger testicles, bigger ejacultions and faster swimming sperms.
• Mate Guarding: Males fear being cuckolded (where another males gets their parent pregnant) and spending resources raising another male’s on and remain child so keep an eye on remain close to their female partners ( link to Kosh and Buss)

Question 12

Describe sneak copulation

Answer 12

• males mate with females other than their partners if given the oppurtunity as it increases their chances of reproductive success.
• This could benefit females aswell , getting pregnant rhough a sneaky copulation with a genetically fit man and resoruce privding with another rich male.

Question 13

Give and Describe the female relationship strategies

Answer 13

Sexy Sons hypothesis: females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive features, increasing their sons’ and thus their own reproductive fitness.
Handicap Hypothesis: Zahavi (1975) beleives females select males with handicaps because it advertises ability to thrive despite handicaps , demonstrating superior genetic quality. This may explain females finding those who drink or take drugs as attractive.
Courtship: females use courtship to select males on the basis of reproductive fitness , through males demonstrating strength, health and ability to provide resources.

Question 14

Describe Koch’s research on sex differences in jealousy

Answer 14

• aimed to test Buss’s (1992) belief that males fear sexual infedelity more , while females fear emotionally infidelity more.
• Sample: 100 male and 100 female German university students.
• Participants imagined 4 scenarios involving both emotional and sexual infidelity.
• Scenario 4: asked participants to choose which aspect made them more jealous: Deep emotional relationship Vs Passionate sexual relationship
• Responses and decision times were recorded.

Question 15

Outline Koch’s findings and evaluate the research

Answer 15

findings:
- Both sexes showed more jealousy over emotional involvement.
- 37% of males vs. 20% of females selected sexual infidelity as causing more jealousy.
- Women who chose emotional infidelity decided faster than those choosing sexual.
- Men who chose sexual infidelity decided faster than those choosing emotional.
Conclusion:
- Men react faster to sexual infidelity, while women react faster to emotional infidelity, supporting evolutionary theories of jealousy.
Evaluation:
- Refutes previous studies suggesting women’s decision-making about emotional infidelity is more elaborate than men’s.
- Does not clarify how men process emotional infidelity decisions.

Question 16

Outline 4 pieces of research on evolutionary explanations for partner preferences.

Answer 16

• Buss (1989): Found that across 37 cultures, men prefer young, attractive women, while women prefer men with resources, ambition, and industriousness. This suggests that gender-based attractiveness preferences are biological.
• Davis (1990): Conducted a content analysis of personal ads and found that men seek health and attractiveness (44%) while offering wealth, and women (25%) seek resources and status while offering beauty. This supports evolutionary-based gender differences in relationship formation.
  -** Dunbar (1995): **Analyzed 900 personal ads from US newspapers, showing that men prioritize youth and attractiveness more than women, further supporting the idea that men and women have different motivations for relationships based on evolutionary factors.
• Cartwright (2000): Supported Langlois and Roggman who used computer composite images, by finding that men prefer symmetrical faces in women, further linking symmetry to attractiveness.
• Swami & Furnham found that the optimum waist to hip ratio of 0.7:1 correspons closely to supermodels which in Singh’s research was a consistent feature in female attractiveness.

Question 17

Evaluate the research on evolutionary explanations (EE) for partner preferences

Answer 17

• the EE presumes heterosexuality and that al relationships are sexual: it is therefore oversimplifed and cannot explain long distance romantic relationships. It also cannot explain cuples choosing not to have children , as it assumes all relationships are motivated by a desire to reproduce.
• Diamond (‘92): beleives males especially in early adulthood, use drugs and risky behaviours, to advertise their reproductive fitness in the face of adversity, providing support for the handicap hypothesis.
• Younger males sometimes desire substantially older women, this goes against evolutionary theory, but may occur due to males wanting to mate with demales proven to be fertile.
• Women do not need men in the way they once did and as predicted by evolutionary theory. Females have greater financial security and employment oppurtunities , and this has occured simultaneously with a rise in single women having children.

Question 18

Name the factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Answer 18

• self disclosure
• physical attraction
• filter theory

Question 19

Describe self-disclosure

Answer 19

• the revealing of personal inforamtion about oneself to another.
• the idea is that SD is crucial to the development of a closer, more intimate romantic relationship.
• Ajzen(1997) sees self-discloure more as a product of information processing, where linking someone comes from ahving positive perceptions of a person, leading them to be seen favourably as likeable, trustworthy and kind.

Question 20

Name and describe the factors that influence the relationship between self disclosure and attraction.

Answer 20

1. Appropriatness of the disclosure: sometimes disclosing personal info may be inapproporiate. Social norms seem to exist as to what info is okay to reveal. More attractive people will be sensitive to these norms.
   2.Attributions for the disclosure: Tbe reasons we believe a person is self-disclosing to us are important . Less attraction occurs if an individual discloses info to everyone. More info if SD is unique - indication of trust.
2. **Gender differences: **women are seen as better communciators of and more interested in intimate info, therefore intimate SD by males may be seen as less appropriate than those by females. A male SD, may be deemed more rewarding for a female.
3. **Content of the disclosure: **highly intimate info may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms decreasing attraction as recipient may feel threatened and unsure how to respond.

Question 21

Give research on self disclosure

Answer 21

• Altman & Taylor reported that disclosing personal information in the intital stages of relationship , was inappropriate and did not enhance attraction suggesting the person was maladjusted and less likeable. Derelga & Grzelak who found that indidviduals who violated social rules by revealing over-intimate personal information were viewed unfavourably.
• Collins and Miller performed a meta-analysis to find that individuals who give intimate SD are more attractive than those who give SD and that people disclose more to those who they are attracted to.
• Brewer & Mittleman reported that the positive impact of self disclosure breaks down at extreme levels of intimacy espeocally between strangers - content of the disclosure.

Question 22

Evaluate self disclosure as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Answer 22

• it is unlikely that attractiveness of a potential partner would be reliant purely on the level of self disclosure - it is more likely that self-disclosure would interact with other considerations, such as attractiveness.
• much research does not distinguish between friendship/companionship and romantic relationships making it diffciult to assess the role of SD soley in romance.
• The personality of recipients may be important too , different individuals would have different needs for levels of intimacy in relationships and this would affect how attractive they would find intimate self-disclosures.

Question 23

Describe physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Answer 23

• P.A is an immediate and accessible way for potential partners to rate each other.
• individuals are not always competent in judging their own level of physical attractivenss, but generally people will agree on the physical attractiveness of a given individual , with greater agreement occuring among men as to the attractiveness of female.

Question 23

Describe the halo effect

Answer 23

• individuals seen as physically attractive tend to create a favourable impression of possessing desirable personality characteristics, such as being trustworthy, optimistic and sociable.
• Where a general impression of someone iis incorrectly formed from one characteristic,

Question 24

With reference to evolutionary theory, what are the indidcators of physical attractiveness

Answer 24

• in males , signs of genetic fitness are facial symmetry and muscularity, signs of healthy maturity are favoured too as they suggest resource richness.
• in females, indidicators of fertility are preferred such as signs of health , like lustrous heair and indidcators of youth.
• However gender differences in what constitute physical attractivness , differences occur across cultures.

Question 25

Describe the matching hypothesis

Answer 25

• the idea that individuals are attracted to people of similar percieved attractiveness.
• this involves individuals assessing their own level of PA and then focusing attention upon potential partners of perceived similar PA.

Question 26

Outline research on physical attractiveness

Answer 26

• Brigham: found that physically attractive people are seen as having desirable personality characteristis , including being sociable, interesting exciting and sexually warm.
• Murstein (1972): asked participants to assess form photographs the physical attractiveness levels of genuine couples and non-genuine couples ( who had been put together for the purpose of the study). It was found that the real couples were more likely to be judged as of similar levels of attractiveness to each other than the non-genuine couples, thus supporting the MH.

Question 27

Evaluate research on physical attractiveness

Answer 27

• In an earlier study Walster et al (1966) actually found that participants liked people who were more physically attractive and that PA was the best indicator by both males and females of wanting to see someone again. This goes against the MH though when asked months later it was found that participants who actually did date their partner again were of similar participants who acctually did date their partner again were of similiar levels of physical attractiveness, which supports the hypothesis.
• Although, physical beauty is an important form of attractiveness , those without it can compensate through complex matching , where they may pair up with a more physically attractive partner by being attractive in other ways, such as through walth or domestic skills.
• in many cultures, such as those practicisng arranged marriages, senior familty members are regarded as better judges of who is compatible as a partner for thier children and therefore attractivness will be judged on factors other than physical attractiveness.

Question 28

Describe the filter theory

Answer 28

• proposed by Kerckhoff & Davis in 1962.
• FT believes that choice of partners is affected by factors limiting the availability of those possible to select from. There is a series of filters that serves to “ thin down the filed” to those available.

Question 29

Give the three components to the filter theory.

Answer 29

1. Similarity of social demographic variables.
2. Similarity in attitudes
3. Complementarity

Question 30

Describe similarity of social demographic variables.

Answer 30

• focus is upon those individuals we are realistically likely to be able to meet and with whom we will have factors i common. Such indidviduals will generally be limited to those who live, work and socialise with us.
• with availability further limited to those of similar class , ethnic , religious educational and economic background to ourselves.
• Such people will appear attractive , as their similarity will make communication easier, aiding the development of a relationship.

Question 31

Describe similarity in attitudes

Answer 31

• Focus here is upon individuals meeting and socialising and thus being exposed to each other belief’s values and attitudes.
• Individuals who have similarity of attitudes will be percieved by each other as being more attractive and compatible.

Question 32

Describe complementarity.

Answer 32

• focus here is upon the degree to which potential partners meet each other needs especially emotional ones.
• Such complementarity helps to make a relationship “deeper” and thus less superficial and is regarded as the most important factor in establishing commitment towards a long relationship.

Question 33

Give research into filter theory

Answer 33

Taylor et al (2010): reported that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 married someone of their own ethnic group, supporting social demography.
Sadalla et al (1987): found that women are attracted to males who are reliable, socially dominant , self-confident and extrovert , as such qualities indicate an ability to achieve a relativitely high position in society and thus meet their need for provision of resources. This supports the idea of complimentarity.
Dijztrka & Barelds (2008), who exmained the extent to which individuals were attracted to partners of similar or complementary personality characteristics, finding that complementary personalities were more preferred in both males and females.

Question 34

Evaluate filter theory

Answer 34

• the relative availability of potential partners due to social demography reasons changes over time as attiudes change to relationships between people of different backgrounds.
• Age is another limiting factors. People tend to socialise in similar age groups and where partners are of different ages, this tends to be between younger females and older men ,w ith a possible evolutioanry between younger females and older men, with a possible evolutionary explanation, with older men tend to be more resource rich and younger females more fertile.
• Males and females filter out different things, due to having different needs. This applies to age and culture, too. Indeed, FT can be accused of cultural bias , as most research was performed in individualistc cultures and therfore may not apply to collectivist cultures where relationships are affected by different limiting factors.

Question 35

What is social exchange theory?

Answer 35

• an economic explanation of relationship maintenance based on maximising profits and minimising costs.
• sees people as percieving their feelings for others in terms of profit. The greater the rewards and the lower the costs, the greater the profit and therefore the greater the desire to maintain the relationship.
• sees social interactions as involving an exchange of rewards such as affection, intimate information and status. The degree of attraction or liking between partners reflects how people evaluate the rewards they recieve relative to those given.
• assess their rewards by making 2 comparisons:
• The comparison level (CL); where rewards are compared against costs to judge profits.
• The CL for alternative relationships (CLalt) - where rewards and costs are compared against percieved rewards and costs for possible alternative relationships.

Question 36

’ Outline Thibuat & Kelley et al (1959) four-stage model of SET. ‘

Answer 36

• Setting out how relationships could be maintained. It percives that over time people develop a predicatable and mutually beneficial pattern of exchanges, assisiting the maintenance of relationships.
• Sampling: rewards and costs are assessd in a number of relationship
• Bargaining: a relationship is costed out and sources of profit and loss are identified.
• Commitment: relationship is established and maintained by a predictable exchange of rewards.
• Institutionalisation: Interactions are established and the couple “settle down”.

Question 37

Give research on social exchange theory

Answer 37

Rusubult (1983): asked pariticpants to complete questionnares over a seven-month period concenrring rewards and costs associated with relationships, fidning that SET did not explain the early ‘honeymoon’ phase of a relationship when balance of exchanges was ignored. However, later on, relationship costs where compared against the degree of personal satisfaction , suggesting that the theory is best applied