relationships Flashcards
1
Q
define natural selection
in context with its impact in driving partner selection
A
- Human behaviour is driven by the need to survive and reproduce.
- certain traits are favoured and increase in the gene pool because they enhance survival and reproductive success.
2
Q
define evolution
A
- the process of adaptation through natural selection
3
Q
what is sexual selection?
A
-selecting characteristics (e.g. physically attractive) that increase reproductive success
4
Q
define intra-sexual selection
A
- refers to mate competition where members of the same sex (often males) compete with one other for members of the opposite sex
- leads ot male-female dimorphism
5
Q
define male-female dimorphism
A
- different secondary sexual characteristics that both genders possess.
6
Q
Define inter-sexual selection
A
- one sex chooses which members of the opposite sex to mate with
- usually females choosing
7
Q
Define Anisogamy
A
- difference between the nature and amount of gametes: male and female sex cells.
- Egg vs sperm
8
Q
What do males and females select for with regards to physical attractiveness
A
- males seek indicators of health and fertility: - large waist to hip ratio (around 0.7) , small waist (not carrying another man’s child) and rosy cheeks.
- females: seek characteristics linked to dominance - V Shaped Chest, tall and healthy.
- Both value facial symmetery as it is the best predictor of body symmetry with women seeing males with symmetry as having genetic precision
9
Q
Name the male strategies used to attract females.
A
- courtship behaviours
- size
- sperm competition
- male guardging
- sneak copulation
9
Q
Give research which supports symmetry as a quality of physical attractiveness
A
Cartwright (2000): Supported Langlois and Roggman who used computer composite images, by finding that men prefer symmetrical faces in women, further linking symmetry to attractiveness.
10
Q
Describe:
- courtship behaviours
- size
male strategies
A
- Courtship behaviour: allow males to display genetic potential, through characteristics and resource abilities.
- Size: males evolved to be bigger , demonstrating strength for success in competition against other males.
11
Q
Describe:
- sperm competition
- mate guarding
male strategies
A
- Sperm Competition: natural selection acted on males, making them more competitive by producing larger testicles, bigger ejacultions and faster swimming sperms.
- Mate Guarding: Males fear being cuckolded (where another males gets their partner pregnant) and spending resources raising another male’s on and remain child so keep an eye on remain close to their female partners ( link to Kosh and Buss)
12
Q
Describe sneak copulation
male strategies
A
- males mate with females other than their partners if given the oppurtunity as it increases their chances of reproductive success.
13
Q
Give the female relationship strategies
A
- Sexy Sons hypothesis
- Handicap Hypothesis
- Courtship
14
Q
What is the sexy sons hypothesis?
A
Sexy Sons hypothesis: females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive features, increasing their sons’ and thus their own reproductive fitness.
15
Q
What is the handicap hypothesis?
A
Handicap Hypothesis: Zahavi (1975) beleives females select males with handicaps because it advertises ability to thrive despite handicaps , demonstrating superior genetic quality. This may explain females finding those who drink or take drugs as attractive.
16
Q
what are female courtship behaviours?
A
- display cues of fertility and health, such as youthfulness and physical attractiveness,
- women may increase their desirability to potential partners
17
Q
Describe Koch’s research on sex differences in jealousy
A
- aimed to test Buss’s (1992) belief that males fear sexual infedelity more , while females fear emotionally infidelity more.
- Sample: 100 male and 100 female German university students.
- Participants imagined 4 scenarios involving both emotional and sexual infidelity.
- Scenario 4: asked participants to choose which aspect made them more jealous: Deep emotional relationship Vs Passionate sexual relationship
- Responses and decision times were recorded.
18
Q
Outline Koch’s findings and evaluate the research
A
findings:
- Both sexes showed more jealousy over emotional involvement.
- 37% of males vs. 20% of females selected sexual infidelity as causing more jealousy.
Conclusion:
- Men react faster to sexual infidelity, while women react faster to emotional infidelity, supporting evolutionary theories of jealousy.
Evaluation:
- Refutes previous studies suggesting women’s decision-making about emotional infidelity is more elaborate than men’s.
- Does not clarify how men process emotional infidelity decisions.
19
Q
Outline 4 pieces of research on evolutionary explanations for partner preferences.
A
- Buss (1989): Found that across 37 cultures, men prefer young, attractive women, while women prefer men with resources, ambition, and industriousness. This suggests that gender-based attractiveness preferences are biological.
- Davis (1990): Conducted a content analysis of personal ads and found that men seek health and attractiveness (44%) while offering wealth, and women (25%) seek resources and status while offering beauty. - strategies
- Dunbar (1995):Analyzed 900 personal ads from US newspapers, showing that men prioritize youth and attractiveness more than women.
- Swami & Furnham found that the optimum waist to hip ratio of 0.7:1 correspons closely to supermodels which in Singh’s research was a consistent feature in female attractiveness.
20
Q
Evaluate the research on evolutionary explanations (EE) for partner preferences
A
- the EE presumes heterosexuality and that al relationships are sexual: it is therefore oversimplifed and cannot explain long distance romantic relationships. It also cannot explain cuples choosing not to have children , as it assumes all relationships are motivated by a desire to reproduce.
- Diamond (‘92): beleives males especially in early adulthood, use drugs and risky behaviours, to advertise their reproductive fitness in the face of adversity, providing support for the handicap hypothesis.
- Younger males sometimes desire substantially older women, this goes against evolutionary theory, but may occur due to males wanting to mate with demales proven to be fertile.
- Women do not need men in the way they once did and as predicted by evolutionary theory. Females have greater financial security and employment oppurtunities , and this has occured simultaneously with a rise in single women having children.
21
Q
Outline an evolutionary explanation for partner preferences. Explain one limitation of an evolutionary explanation for partner preferences. (6)
A
- partner preference / mating strategy is driven by sexual selection
- males / females choose partner in order to maximise their reproductive success (Inter and Intra sexual selection)
- characteristics that maximise reproductive success are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations
- so partner preferences evolve in a population
- examples of male / female strategies, e.g. courtship rituals, mate-guarding etc.
eval: - use of evidence to refute evolutionary theory
- evolutionary theory cannot explain non-heterosexual relationships as easily
- theory is less relevant where women have a more independent role in some modern societies
- societal and cultural changes such as availability of contraception mean that evolutionary pressures are less relevant.
22
Q
Name the factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships
A
- self disclosure
- physical attraction
- filter theory
23
Q
Describe self-disclosure
A
- the revealing of personal inforamtion about oneself to another.
- SD develops a closer, more intimate romantic relationship.
leading them to be seen favourably as likeable, trustworthy and kind.
24
Name and describe the 4 factors that influence the relationship between self disclosure and attraction.
1. **Appropriatness of the disclosure:** sometimes disclosing personal info may be inapproporiate. Social norms seem to exist as to what info is okay to reveal. More attractive people will be sensitive to these norms.
2.**Attributions for the disclosure:** Tbe reasons for disclosure . Less attraction occurs if an individual discloses info to everyone. More info if SD is unique - indication of trust.
3. **Gender differences:** women are seen as better communciators and more interested in intimate info, therefore. A male SD, may be deemed more rewarding for a female.
4. **Content of the disclosure:** highly intimate info may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms decreasing attraction.
25
Give research on self disclosure
- Altman & Taylor reported that disclosing personal information in the intital stages of relationship , was inappropriate and did not enhance attraction suggesting the person was maladjusted and less likeable. Derelga & Grzelak who found that indidviduals who violated social rules by revealing over-intimate personal information were viewed unfavourably.
- Collins and Miller performed a meta-analysis to find that individuals who give intimate SD are more attractive than those who give SD and that people disclose more to those who they are attracted to.
- Brewer & Mittleman reported that the positive impact of self disclosure breaks down at extreme levels of intimacy espeocally between strangers - content of the disclosure.
26
Evaluate self disclosure as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships
- it is unlikely that attractiveness of a potential partner would be reliant purely on the level of self disclosure - it is more likely that self-disclosure would interact with other considerations, such as attractiveness.
- much research does not distinguish between friendship/companionship and romantic relationships making it diffciult to assess the role of SD soley in romance.
- The personality of recipients may be important too , different individuals would have different needs for levels of intimacy in relationships and this would affect how attractive they would find intimate self-disclosures.
27
Describe physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships
- P.A is an immediate and accessible way for potential partners to rate each other.
- individuals are not always competent in judging their own level of physical attractivenss, but generally people will agree on the physical attractiveness of a given individual , with greater agreement occuring among men as to the attractiveness of female.
28
Describe the halo effect
- individuals seen as physically attractive tend to create a favourable impression of possessing desirable personality characteristics, such as being trustworthy, optimistic and sociable.
- Where a general impression of someone iis incorrectly formed from one characteristic,
29
With reference to evolutionary theory, what are the indidcators of physical attractiveness
- in males , signs of genetic fitness are facial symmetry and muscularity, signs of healthy maturity are favoured too as they suggest resource richness.
- in females, indidicators of fertility are preferred such as signs of health , like lustrous heair and indidcators of youth.
- However gender differences in what constitute physical attractivness , differences occur across cultures.
30
Describe the matching hypothesis
- the idea that individuals are attracted to people of similar percieved attractiveness.
- this involves individuals assessing their own level of PA and then focusing attention upon potential partners of perceived similar PA.
31
Outline research on physical attractiveness
- Brigham: found that physically attractive people are seen as having desirable personality characteristis , including being sociable, interesting exciting and sexually warm.
- Murstein (1972): asked participants to assess form photographs the physical attractiveness levels of genuine couples and non-genuine couples ( who had been put together for the purpose of the study). It was found that the real couples were more likely to be judged as of similar levels of attractiveness to each other than the non-genuine couples, thus supporting the MH.
32
Evaluate research on physical attractiveness
- In an earlier study Walster et al (1966) actually found that participants liked people who were more physically attractive and that PA was the best indicator by both males and females of wanting to see someone again. This goes against the MH though when asked months later it was found that participants who actually did date their partner again were of similar participants who acctually did date their partner again were of similiar levels of physical attractiveness, which supports the hypothesis.
- Although, physical beauty is an important form of attractiveness , those without it can compensate through complex matching , where they may pair up with a more physically attractive partner by being attractive in other ways, such as through walth or domestic skills.
- in many cultures, such as those practicisng arranged marriages, senior familty members are regarded as better judges of who is compatible as a partner for thier children and therefore attractivness will be judged on factors other than physical attractiveness.
33
Describe the filter theory
- proposed by Kerckhoff & Davis in 1962.
- FT believes that choice of partners is affected by factors limiting the availability of those possible to select from. There is a series of filters that serves to " thin down the filed" to those available.
34
Give the three components to the filter theory.
1. Similarity of social demographic variables.
2. Similarity in attitudes
3. Complementarity
35
Describe similarity of social demographic variables.
- focus is upon those individuals we are realistically likely to be able to meet and with whom we will have factors i common. Such indidviduals will generally be limited to those who live, work and socialise with us.
- with availability further limited to those of similar class , ethnic , religious educational and economic background to ourselves.
- Such people will appear attractive , as their similarity will make communication easier, aiding the development of a relationship.
36
Describe similarity in attitudes
- Focus here is upon individuals meeting and socialising and thus being exposed to each other belief's values and attitudes.
- Individuals who have similarity of attitudes will be percieved by each other as being more attractive and compatible.
37
Describe complementarity.
- focus here is upon the degree to which potential partners meet each other needs especially emotional ones.
- Such complementarity helps to make a relationship "deeper" and thus less superficial and is regarded as the most important factor in establishing commitment towards a long relationship.
38
Give research into filter theory
Taylor et al (2010): reported that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 married someone of their own ethnic group, supporting social demography.
Sadalla et al (1987): found that women are attracted to males who are reliable, socially dominant , self-confident and extrovert , as such qualities indicate an ability to achieve a relativitely high position in society and thus meet their need for provision of resources. This supports the idea of complimentarity.
Dijztrka & Barelds (2008), who exmained the extent to which individuals were attracted to partners of similar or complementary personality characteristics, finding that complementary personalities were more preferred in both males and females.
39
Evaluate filter theory
- the relative availability of potential partners due to social demography reasons changes over time as attiudes change to relationships between people of different backgrounds.
- Age is another limiting factors. People tend to socialise in similar age groups and where partners are of different ages, this tends to be between younger females and older men ,w ith a possible evolutioanry between younger females and older men, with a possible evolutionary explanation, with older men tend to be more resource rich and younger females more fertile.
- Males and females filter out different things, due to having different needs. This applies to age and culture, too. Indeed, FT can be accused of cultural bias , as most research was performed in individualistc cultures and therfore may not apply to collectivist cultures where relationships are affected by different limiting factors.
40
What is social exchange theory?
- an economic explanation of relationship maintenance based on maximising profits and minimising costs.
- sees people as percieving their feelings for others in terms of profit. The greater the rewards and the lower the costs, the greater the profit and therefore the greater the desire to maintain the relationship.
- sees social interactions as involving an exchange of rewards such as affection, intimate information and status. The degree of attraction or liking between partners reflects how people evaluate the rewards they recieve relative to those given.
- assess their rewards by making 2 comparisons:
- The comparison level (CL); where rewards are compared against costs to judge profits.
- The CL for alternative relationships (CLalt) - where rewards and costs are compared against percieved rewards and costs for possible alternative relationships.
41
' Outline Thibuat & Kelley et al (1959) four-stage model of SET. '
- Setting out how relationships could be maintained. It percives that over time people develop a predicatable and mutually beneficial pattern of exchanges, assisiting the maintenance of relationships.
- Sampling: rewards and costs are assessd in a number of relationship
- Bargaining: a relationship is costed out and sources of profit and loss are identified.
- Commitment: relationship is established and maintained by a predictable exchange of rewards.
- Institutionalisation: Interactions are established and the couple "settle down".
42
Give research on social exchange theory
- Rusubult (1983): asked participants to complete questionnares over a seven-month period concerning rewards and costs associated with relationships, fidning that SET did not explain the early 'honeymoon' phase of a relationship when balance of exchanges was ignored. However, later on, relationship costs where compared against the degree of personal satisfaction , suggesting that the theory is best applied to maintenance of relationships.
- Rusbult & Martz found that women who had been physically assulated by their partners and were living in a women's refuge were likely to return to their abusive partners, as they did not have better alternatives , often due to low levels of education , no job prospects and little access to money. This supports SET as the profits were seen to exceed the costs , despite the abusive relationship.
-
43
Evaluate social learning theory
- equity theory still portrays people as selfish. Many researchers, like Duck (1988) prefer to see people as concerned with ana equitable distribution of rewards and costs for themselves and their partners.
- Thibaut (1978) proposed interdependence theory which suggests that not all social interactions reflect a shared desire for equity and fair exchange. Intimate relationships are varied and complex , and partner's motives and desires can clash as well as coincide, producing capitulation , cooperation and intransigence. This goes beyond individual partners, considering the harmony and/or conflict between attitudes, motives , values or goals of people in social relationships.
- mills and clark beleive that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationshops , as much input is emotional and so unquantifiable, and to do so diminishes the quality of love.
- Sprecher )1986) beleives that close relationships are too complex to allow for precise assessement of various rewards and costs involved in establishing equity.
44
what is equity theory?
- it believes individuals are motivated to achieve fairness in relationships and to feel dissatisfied with inequity.
- definitions of equity within a relationship can differ between individuals.
- maintenance of relationships occurs through balance and stability. Relationships which were inequatable leads to dissatisafaction and possible dissolution.
45
Outline Walster et al's 4 principles of equity
1. profit : rewards are maximised and costs maintained
2. distribution: trade-odds and compensation negotiated to achieve fairness in a relationship.
3. the greater the degree of percieved unfairness, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction.
4. if restoring equity is possible, maintenance will continue, with attempts made to realign equity.
46
Outline research with equity theory
- Dainton (2003) studied 219 individuals in romanitic relationships, finding that those in relationships of percieved inequity had low relationship satisfaction, but were motivatred to return to an equitable state to maintain the relationship.
- Argyle found that people in close relationship do not think in terms of rewards and costs unless they feel dissatisfied, implying that equity , at least in a concious fashion, is not a valid explanation.
- Yum et al ( 2009) looked at different types of heterosexual romantic relationships in six different cultures. As predicted by equity theory, maintenance strategies differd , with individuals in percieived equitable relationships engaging in most maintenance strategies.
47
Evaluate equity theory
- still portrays people as selfish. Many researchers , like Duck ('88) prfer to see people as concerned with an equitable distrubution of rewards and costs for themselves and their partners.
- Sprecher )'86) beleives that close relationships are too complex to allow for precise assessment of various rewards and costs involved in establishing equity.
- Equity seems more importance to females , suggesting that the theory is not applicable to both genders. Hoschild & Machung (1986) found that women do most of the work to make relationships equitable.
- some research suggests that equity theory does not apply to ll cultures. Moghaddam et al found that US students prefer equity , but European students prefer equlity , suggesting that the theory reflects the values of US society.
48
Briefly outline what is meant by ‘equity’ in relation to theories of romantic relationships. (2)
- an economic model of relationships based on the idea of fairness for each partner;
- emphasises the need for each partner to experience a balance between their cost / effort and their benefit / reward
49
Describe Rusbault's investment model of commitment
1. Satisfaction level refers to the positive v negative effect experienced in a relationship. Satisfaction is influeced by the degree to which a partner meets an individual's needs. E.g. extent to which a partner meets one's emotional and sexual needs.
2. Comparison with alternatives refers to the percieved desirability of the best alternative to the current relationship and is based upon the extent to which an individual's needs could be met within that alternative relationship.
3. Investment Size: refers to the amount and importance of the resources associated with a relationship and the extent to which such resources would decline in value or be lost if the relationship was to end.
50
Describe the two variables linked to commitment
1.** Equity:** the degree of fairness within a relationship. Inequity leads to distress and lack of satisfaction with a relationship and thus less commitment to it. Such distress can be relieved by ending the relationship.
2. **Social Support:** the degree of care and assistance from others, e.g. family + friends. If they approve , it produces a positive influence that increases commitment.
51
Give research on Rusbault's model of commitment
- Rusbult et al ('98) administered the IMS questionnaire to participants in homosexual relationships, finding support for all factors of the model, as did Duffy when adminstering the same questionnare to marital relationships which suggests that the model explains commitment in a variety of relationnships.
- Van Lange ('97) found support for all factors of the model in Taiwanese participants and this was coupled with similar found by Lin & Rusbult with Dutch participants , which suggests there is cross cultural validity.
52
Evaluate Rusbult's investment model of commitment
- research indicates that Rusbult's model with its focus on commitment and what individuals have invested is a better predictor of maintenance in relationships than equity theory.
- It can explain why partners remain in abusive relationships , as the cost of losing what they have invested and committed to in the relationship may be too great , with no possible alternative relationships to turn to.
- Research that supports the investment model is highlt reliant on self-report measures , which may be subject to socially desirable and idealised answers , as well as researcher bias, casting some doubts on the validity of the results.
- explains infedelity , as a low satisfaction with a current relationship and high satisfacction with an alt relationship.
53
Describe Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown
| 3.4
suggested an account of dissolution involving 4 sequential phases:
1. Intrapsychic: one partner privately percieves dissatsifaction with the relationship
2. Dyadic: the dissatisfaction is discussed. If it is not resolved , there is a move to the next stage
3. Social: the breakdown is made public. There is negotiation about children , finances and so on , with wider families and friends becoming involved.
4. Grave dressing: a post-relationship view of the break up is established, protecting self-esteem and rebuilding life towards new relationships.
54
Give two characteristics associated with Duck's model of breakdown
1. Intrapsychic phase: personal focus on partner behaviour + consider costs of withdrawal
2. Dyadic phase: confront partner / attempt at repair
3. Social phase: initiate discussion socially/blame-placing stories created
4. Grave-dressing phase: retrospective post-mortem attribution / perform ' getting over it' activities.
55
Give research on Duck's model
- Kassin found that women are more likely to stress unhappiness and compatibility as reasons for dissolution , while men blame lack of sex. Women wish to remain friends whilst males want no contact, suggesting Duck does not consider gender differences.
- Tashiro & Frazier performed a survey of 92 students about their experiences after relationship breakdowns , finding a number of personal growth factors that helped in future. This supports Duck's idea that through grave-dressing processes people are able to recover after dissolution.
- Akert ('92) found that the person who instigated the break up suffers fewer negative consequences than the non-instigator, suggesting indidivudal differences that the model does not explain.
56
Evaluate Duck's model of relationship breakdown
- has face validity ; most people can relate to their own and/or other's experiences.
- Research shows that Duck''s four phases are not universal as they do not apply to every case nor occur sequentially.
- The model does not usually apply to homosexual relationships which may not involve some decisions over children. + not applicable to heterozeuxal who decide not to have children.
- does not take into account why dissatsifaction occurs ; its starting point is where dissattisfaction is already set. Therefore not a complete picture of dissolution
57
Name and outline one stage of Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown. (3)
- intra-psychic stage partners express their feelings and plans to save the relationship are considered.
- dyadic stage partners assess each other’s behaviour and evaluate the costs of withdrawing.
- social phase partners engage in activities aimed at getting over the relationship breakdown and announce they are splitting.
- grave-dressing partners questions their decision and then consider how the break-up has impacted their social network
58
Barbara and Jamima are both having relationship difficulties with their respective partners.
Barbara says, ‘I’m really fed up and I wish the relationship was over. But I can’t tell him, because he thinks everything is fine.’
Jamima says, ‘We are getting through it slowly. We’ve told the children what’s going to happen to them and sorted out the money side. My mum was upset but she’s OK about it now. Friends take sides of course.’
Referring to Barbara’s and Jamima’s comments, outline two phases of relationship breakdown proposed by Duck.
- intrapsychic phase – one person is privately dissatisfied with the relationship, considering ending the relationship, worrying about problems to come, considering expressing dissatisfaction to partner
- Barbara is in the intrapsychic phase because she wants to end it and is worrying about telling partner who is unaware of how she feels
- social phase – the breakdown has happened, other people are told/it becomes public, there is negotiation about practicalities, eg division of assets, childcare responsibilities etc.
- Jamima is in the social phase – friends and mum know, they are taking steps to arrange for children and sort out money.
59
what are virtual relationships?
| 3.5
- non-physical interactions between people communicating via social media
60
How has virtual relationships been facilitated and how has that helped the formation of relationships?
- advancements in technology allows VR to be conducted visually in real time with webcams , increasing the quality of communication.
- online dating facilitates interracial and homosexual relatioships.
- social media gives greater access to VR as alllows indidviduals to see commonalities such as location , hobbies and age
- Participants in online conversation have more time to 'edit' their responses to present themselves in a more positive light; Walther calls this 'selective self-presentation
61
Give research on virtual relationships
- Mishna et al found that the vast majoirty of 16-24 year olds considered VR to be as real as their physical relationships and that the internet played a crucial role in sexual and romantic experiences of adolescents , illustrating the importance and acceptance of VR by the younger generation.
- Cornwell + Lundgren surveyed 80 chat rooms users to find that 28% admitted to misrepresenting their physical appearance, 23% their age and 18% their background, illustrating use of misrepresentation in VR.
- Stephure et al reported that most people in VR's were seeking fun , companionship and communication.
62
Evaluate Virtual Relationships
- non VR can have a virtual side to them. Lenhart & Duggan reported that 25% of Americans who are married or in long-term partnerships have texted their partner when both were at home together.
- Indeed 21% of phone and internet users in commited relationships report that they have felt closer to their parners as a result of online exchanges and 9% have resolved arguments online.
- These effects are even higher with younger people. 8% of people in commited relationships beleive their relationships has suffered due to their partners VR with others.
63
Describe the effect of VR on self disclosure
- the anonymitiy of VR means that individuals can reveal intimate personal info with less fear of being socially embrassed by such information being leaked.
- intimacy develop more quickly than with face to face relationships and are based on more meaningful factors such as shared interests, rather than more superficial factors.
- SD creates high level of affection that are sustained if people in VR meet. This occurs due to a lack of physical info, which can help form initial impressions.
- SD in VR also carries a danger of dishonest individauls misrepresenting themselves in order to appear favourable so that they can successfully exploit people.
64
Outline research on the effect of VR on self disclosure
- Yum&Hara found that American participants reported that greater disclosure in VR was associated with motr trust while Korean participants reported greater disclosure led to less trust, suggested that it is mediated by cultural factors.
- Peter et al found introverts were motivated to communicate online to compensate for their lack of social skills , which increased the motivation to make friends online, led to more SD and more intimacy.
- It was also found that extroverts self-disclosed more in VR which helped to develop their relationships further too.
- Schouten et al found that people high in social anxiety revealed greater SD in VR due to the lack of non verbal cues in oline communications , supporting the idea that people who have problems socialising in the physical world are able to SD more in VR.
- Walther (1996, 2011) proposed the hyperpersonal model, suggesting that, as self-disclosure in online relationships happens earlier than in face-to-face ones, relationships quickly become more intense and feel more intimate and meaningful. They can also end more quickly, however, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for a long time.
65
Evaluate the effect of VR on self disclosure
- one of the fangers in self-disclosure inn VR is that individuals may be presenting their ideal self to their veirtual partner than theur real seld . Therefore the intimacy created can lead to idealisation of a vritual partner, which the person cannot live up to in realit.
- Social media creates social pressure upon individuals to conform to certain levels of intimiate discoloures that they are not truly happy with. This is especially true of sexting where females report pressure to send such sexts.
- There is a practical application in using VR as a therapy for the socially inept to learn social skills useful for shaping social relationships in the realworld. Can also be used to help those with a social phobia. ( Schouten + Peter ).
- However, Sproull and Kiesler (1986) suggested that online relationships might be less open and honest than face-to-face ones, because in real life we are relying on a lot of subtle cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice, and these cues are absent in virtual communications (Reduced Cues Theory). According to this theory, reduction in communication cues leads to de-individuation because it diminishes people's feelings of individual identity
66
Anji is trying Internet dating for the first time. She is considering what information about herself to put in her online profile.
Friend A tells Anji not to be shy and that she should disclose everything.
Friend B warns Anji about the anonymity of the Internet and says people can be very critical so she should give out limited information at the start.
Use your knowledge of self-disclosure in virtual relationships to explain the advice given by Anji’s friends. (4)
- friend A’s advice is in line with the hyper personal model of online relationships (Walther, 2011), suggesting greater/more rapid self-disclosure than in face-to-face relationships
- greater self-disclosure, as recommended by friend A, is said to lead to virtual relationships developing more quickly, being more intense
* friend A’s advice seems to reflect the stranger-on-a-train effect (Bargh 2002)
* friend B warns against disinhibition which can occur in virtual relationships because of the anonymity/deindividuation
* disinhibition might lead to critical/aggressive/unkind comment about Anji’s personal disclosures.
67
Describe the effects of the absence of gating on the nature of VR
- VR is not subject to the visual factors such as levels of physical attractiveness that face-to-face relationships are. This means less physically beautiful and socially skilled inidividuals have a greater chance to build relationships.
68
Give research on the effect of absence of gating on VR
- Bargh et al found that intimacy developed more quickly with virtual than face to face relationshops because of a lack of gating features tht typically prevent intimate disclosures in face-face relationships. Supports lack of gating helps VR to grow more quickly.
- Mckenna found that the removal of physical gating features , such as level of physical atteactiveness , allowed certain disadvantaged people to bypass usual obstacles that hinder them from developing intimate relationships.
- Rosemann & Safir used questionnares to find that the online environment allowed individuals to experiment with and reveal non-conventional identities to others that would not be possible otherwise.
69
Evaluate the effect of absence of gating on VR
- there is is a much wider potential group of people to form relationships with online , as VR , allows for a focus on common interests , attitudes , etc rather than being limited by more superficial but dominant gating features, such as level of physical attractiveness.
- research has not really considered that limiting gating features may differ between groups of people , for instance age and level of physical attractivenness are probably more of gating factors for females seeking male partners than for males seeking feamle partners.
- The majority of studies have used self-reports , which may be prone to idealised and socially desirable answers and thus not be providing valid data
70
What are parasocial relationships?
- one-sided relationships occuring with media personalities outside of an individual's real social network.
71
what are the factors that lead to and influence parasocial relationships.
- occur in all age groups, but peak between 11-17 years of age, then decline slowly
- level of education is also a factor- the less education the greater the level of attraction to media personalities.
- originally percieveed as abnormal and thought ot have originated from factors such as neuroticism , isolation , loneliness, fear and a lack of social interactions.
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Give research on parasocial relationship
- Rubin et al found little correlation between loneliness and the strength of TV viewers parasocial relationships with onscreen characters which refute that it is a dysfunctional substitite for inadequate relationships.
- Giles 2000 found that younger people were more attracted to media personalities than older people, supporting the idea that parasocial relationships are affected by age factors.
- McCutcheon found a negative corelation of -0.4 between amoutn of education and amount of celebrity worship, suggesting that those with less education have a more intense interest.
- Gabrien gave students a questionnare measuring self-esteem and asked them to write an essay about their favourite celebrity , followed by the same questionnare. Participants initially scoring low , scored much higher after writing the essay , suggesting they incorporated the characteristics of the celebrtiy into themselves - positive impact
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Evaluate the acquirement of a parasocial relationship
- level of education is a factor in parasocial relatioshios as external high achievers may percieve the major media personalities as less educated than the major media personalitieis and therefore less worthy of positive regard.
- research into parasocial relatioships generally uses questionnares , which can be affected by socially desirable and idealsied answers and therefore lack validity. Fidnings also tend to be in the form of correlations which do not show causal relationships and may be affeccted by other variables
- For instance , the relationship between low levels of education and high levels of fandom may actually concern levels of intelliegence. McCutcheon et al ('04) argue that low levels of education are associated with high levels of parasocial relationships because education is related to intelligence , and thus more intelligent people are better able to see the inadequacies of worshipping media personalities.
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Describe Mcrutcheon et al's Celebrity Attitude Scale
1. Entertainment-social-sub scale : measures social aspects of PR , like discussing medi personalities with friends.
2. Intense-personal sub-scale : measures strength of feelings and levels of obsesion about media personalities.
3. Borderline-pathological sub-scale: measures levels of uncontrollable feelings and behaviours about media personalities.
- it was concluded that PR have a single dimension with lower scoring individuals showig a keen interest in media personalities, while highb scorers tend to over identify and become obsessive
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Describe the absorption-addiction model
- believes that most individuals know that their degree of admiration for a media personality is because of their entertainement level and this degree of admiration will progress no further than that.
- some people may seek a more intense PR with a media personality to fill the dissatisfaction they feel in their own lives.
- in extreme causes , a PR becomes addictive and an individuals behaviour may become extreme, bordering on the abnormal and may involve criminal behaviour, like stalkiing.
- individuals may deelop an illusion that they genuinely are i an intimate relationship with the media personality.
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Describe Giles & Maltby's levels of parasocial relationship
- entertainment social: individuals are attracted to media personalities because they are interesting
- intense-personal: individuals feel a connection with the media personality e.g. feeling that they are soul meets
- borderline-pathological: indidivuals in this categroy have uncontrollable behaviours and obsessive fantasies about their media personality which are completetely divorced from reality and which prevent them living a normal life.
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Summarise Houran's CWS research
| procedure and aim
- aim: to assess the prevalene of CWS and understand why individuals develop a fascination with media persoalities.
- 600 participants completed a personality test and interviews about their interest in media personalities.
- Participants rated statements like if she asked me to something illegal as a favour , i would do it.
- 1/ 3 exhbiited CWS
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Give the findings to Houran's CWS research
**Entertainment-Social (20%):** People follow celebrities for entertainment, often extroverts.
**Intense-Personal (10%): **Addictive attitudes, believing in a special bond with the celebrity. These individuals are neurotic, emotional, and moody.
**Borderline-Pathological (1%):** Impulsive, antisocial, and self-centred behaviour indicative of psychosis, including stalking and willingness to harm themselves or others for their idol.
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Evaluate Houran's CWS research
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Briefly outline the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships. (2)
- parasocial relationships make up for deficits in real life relationships
- parasocial relationships enable a sense of identity
- addictive nature means that parasocial relationships escalate through series of stages
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Explain two limitations of the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships. (6)
- Views parasocial relationships as psychopathological and thus is negative in contrast to the positive/active view.
- The absorption–addiction model provides a description rather than an explanation of the processes involved in parasocial relationships.
- Broader scientific issues eg difficulty showing cause and effect.
- Limited availability of evidence – problems of testability
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Outline research on characteristics associated with PR
Purcell et al (2002) found female stalkers were of a nurturing disposition were searching for intimacy and stalked people they knew offering a reason as to why celebrtity stalking is usually by males.
Maltby et al (2003) used Eysenck's personality questionnare to find that individuals in the entertainment-social level scored highly on extroversion , while those in the intense-personal level scored highly on neuroticism. This suggests that an individual's level of involvement in PR is mediated by personality factors.
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Evaluate the levels of parasocial relationships
- Maltby's entertainment-social dimension of parasocial relationships is consistent with Stever's observation that fans are attracted to media personalities due to their percieved ability to entertain
- Research into the AA model suggests people tend to become interested in celebrities at times when they are looking for direction in life.
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Describe the Attachment theory explanation for parasocial relationships
- The tendency for parasocial relationships to be formed by those with insecure childhood attachments.
- those with insecure resistant attachment types are more likely to form PRs such indidivduals have a need for close emotional relationships , but ones in which there is a reduced risk of rejection.
- in a parasocial relationship an individual can have a close intimate bond to a media persoanlity, but as the media personality is not aware of this relationship , there is no chance that they will reject the individual.
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Give research on the attachement theory
Kienlan et al found that 63% of stalkers experienced a loss of primrary caregivers during childhood usually due to parental separation whle more than 50% reported childhood emotional , physical or sexual abuse by primary caregivers. This supports the idea that disturbed attachment partners are related to extreme forms of PR.
Cole & Leets found that teenagers with insecure resitstant attachments werte more likely to have parasocial relationships with TV media personalities than those with secure and insecure avoidant attachments.
McCutcheon found no relationship between childhood attachment patterns and mild forms of celeb worship , suggesting that it is only more intense forms of parasocial relationships that are related to attachment types.
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Evaluate the attachment theory explanation for PR
- Ross & Spinner have indicated that there is variation in attachment styles across significant relationships. If this also applies to PR it would mean linking a specific attachemnt pattern to such relationships is not valid.
- Supported by a key component of attachment theory , that of seeking proximity to the attachment figure. Those in PR seek closeness to their admired media personality.
- individuals look to attachment figures as a safe base ; those in PR do the same. Stever cites examples where indidivuals who have experienced loss of a loved one found comfort in PR , for instance with pop stars who speak to them through their lyrics.
