relationships

Question 1

define natural selection

Answer 1

• human behaviour is driven by the need to survive and reporduce. Both males and females need to make sure that they have children, and those children survive to adulthood.
• Genes that confer a reproductive advatnage will increase in the gene pool.

Question 2

define evolution

Answer 2

• the process of adaptation through natural selection

Question 3

what is sexual selection?

Answer 3

• involves the natural selection of characteristics increasing reproductive success.
• Reproductive success involves the production of healthy offspring, surviving to sexual maturity

Question 4

define intersexual selection

Answer 4

• memebers of one sex compete for access to the other sex leading to male-female dimprohism
• behaviours include the male /female strategies (see f7)

Question 5

define male-female dimorphism

Answer 5

• enhanced secondary sexual characteristics are selected for by both genders, leading to these becoming more common in the population
• Evolution explains SD as developing through the process of natural selection , as it gave an adaptive advantage increasing the survival into adulthood.

Question 6

Define intra sexual selection

Answer 6

• one sex chooses from available perspective mates according to attractiveness; genes that confer attractive qualities are more saleable.

Question 7

Define Anisogamy

Answer 7

• difference between the nature and amount of gametes: male and female sex cells.
• Egg vs sperm

Question 8

Outline the impact of attractiveness on male and female selection

Answer 8

males: Physical attractiveness in females is valued by males as an indicator of health and fertility. Qualities include large waist to hip ratio (around 0.7) , small waist (not carrying another man’s child) and rosy cheeks.
females: Look for characteristics linked to dominance - V Shaped Chest, tall and healthy.
Both value facial symmetery as it is the best predictor of body symmetry with women seeing males with symmetry as having genetic precision

Question 9

Name the male strategies used to attract females.

Answer 9

• courtship behaviours
• size
• sperm competition
• male guardging
• sneak copulation

Question 10

Describe:
- courtship behaviours
- size

male strategies

Answer 10

• Courtship behaviour: allow males to display genetic potential, through characteristics and resource abilities.
• Size: males evolved to be bigger , demonstrating strength for success in competition against other males.

Question 11

Describe:
- sperm competition
- mate guarding

Answer 11

• Sperm Competition: natural selection acted on males, making them more competitive by producing larger testicles, bigger ejacultions and faster swimming sperms.
• Mate Guarding: Males fear being cuckolded (where another males gets their parent pregnant) and spending resources raising another male’s on and remain child so keep an eye on remain close to their female partners ( link to Kosh and Buss)

Question 12

Describe sneak copulation

Answer 12

• males mate with females other than their partners if given the oppurtunity as it increases their chances of reproductive success.
• This could benefit females aswell , getting pregnant rhough a sneaky copulation with a genetically fit man and resoruce privding with another rich male.

Question 13

Give and Describe the female relationship strategies

Answer 13

Sexy Sons hypothesis: females select attractive males as they will produce sons with the same attractive features, increasing their sons’ and thus their own reproductive fitness.
Handicap Hypothesis: Zahavi (1975) beleives females select males with handicaps because it advertises ability to thrive despite handicaps , demonstrating superior genetic quality. This may explain females finding those who drink or take drugs as attractive.
Courtship: females use courtship to select males on the basis of reproductive fitness , through males demonstrating strength, health and ability to provide resources.

Question 14

Describe Koch’s research on sex differences in jealousy

Answer 14

• aimed to test Buss’s (1992) belief that males fear sexual infedelity more , while females fear emotionally infidelity more.
• Sample: 100 male and 100 female German university students.
• Participants imagined 4 scenarios involving both emotional and sexual infidelity.
• Scenario 4: asked participants to choose which aspect made them more jealous: Deep emotional relationship Vs Passionate sexual relationship
• Responses and decision times were recorded.

Question 15

Outline Koch’s findings and evaluate the research

Answer 15

findings:
- Both sexes showed more jealousy over emotional involvement.
- 37% of males vs. 20% of females selected sexual infidelity as causing more jealousy.
- Women who chose emotional infidelity decided faster than those choosing sexual.
- Men who chose sexual infidelity decided faster than those choosing emotional.
Conclusion:
- Men react faster to sexual infidelity, while women react faster to emotional infidelity, supporting evolutionary theories of jealousy.
Evaluation:
- Refutes previous studies suggesting women’s decision-making about emotional infidelity is more elaborate than men’s.
- Does not clarify how men process emotional infidelity decisions.

Question 16

Outline 4 pieces of research on evolutionary explanations for partner preferences.

Answer 16

• Buss (1989): Found that across 37 cultures, men prefer young, attractive women, while women prefer men with resources, ambition, and industriousness. This suggests that gender-based attractiveness preferences are biological.
• Davis (1990): Conducted a content analysis of personal ads and found that men seek health and attractiveness (44%) while offering wealth, and women (25%) seek resources and status while offering beauty. This supports evolutionary-based gender differences in relationship formation.
  -** Dunbar (1995): **Analyzed 900 personal ads from US newspapers, showing that men prioritize youth and attractiveness more than women, further supporting the idea that men and women have different motivations for relationships based on evolutionary factors.
• Cartwright (2000): Supported Langlois and Roggman who used computer composite images, by finding that men prefer symmetrical faces in women, further linking symmetry to attractiveness.
• Swami & Furnham found that the optimum waist to hip ratio of 0.7:1 correspons closely to supermodels which in Singh’s research was a consistent feature in female attractiveness.

Question 17

Evaluate the research on evolutionary explanations (EE) for partner preferences

Answer 17

• the EE presumes heterosexuality and that al relationships are sexual: it is therefore oversimplifed and cannot explain long distance romantic relationships. It also cannot explain cuples choosing not to have children , as it assumes all relationships are motivated by a desire to reproduce.
• Diamond (‘92): beleives males especially in early adulthood, use drugs and risky behaviours, to advertise their reproductive fitness in the face of adversity, providing support for the handicap hypothesis.
• Younger males sometimes desire substantially older women, this goes against evolutionary theory, but may occur due to males wanting to mate with demales proven to be fertile.
• Women do not need men in the way they once did and as predicted by evolutionary theory. Females have greater financial security and employment oppurtunities , and this has occured simultaneously with a rise in single women having children.

Question 18

Name the factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Answer 18

• self disclosure
• physical attraction
• filter theory

Question 19

Describe self-disclosure

Answer 19

• the revealing of personal inforamtion about oneself to another.
• the idea is that SD is crucial to the development of a closer, more intimate romantic relationship.
• Ajzen(1997) sees self-discloure more as a product of information processing, where linking someone comes from ahving positive perceptions of a person, leading them to be seen favourably as likeable, trustworthy and kind.

Question 20

Name and describe the factors that influence the relationship between self disclosure and attraction.

Answer 20

1. Appropriatness of the disclosure: sometimes disclosing personal info may be inapproporiate. Social norms seem to exist as to what info is okay to reveal. More attractive people will be sensitive to these norms.
   2.Attributions for the disclosure: Tbe reasons we believe a person is self-disclosing to us are important . Less attraction occurs if an individual discloses info to everyone. More info if SD is unique - indication of trust.
2. **Gender differences: **women are seen as better communciators of and more interested in intimate info, therefore intimate SD by males may be seen as less appropriate than those by females. A male SD, may be deemed more rewarding for a female.
3. **Content of the disclosure: **highly intimate info may be seen as inappropriate and as violating social norms decreasing attraction as recipient may feel threatened and unsure how to respond.

Question 21

Give research on self disclosure

Answer 21

• Altman & Taylor reported that disclosing personal information in the intital stages of relationship , was inappropriate and did not enhance attraction suggesting the person was maladjusted and less likeable. Derelga & Grzelak who found that indidviduals who violated social rules by revealing over-intimate personal information were viewed unfavourably.
• Collins and Miller performed a meta-analysis to find that individuals who give intimate SD are more attractive than those who give SD and that people disclose more to those who they are attracted to.
• Brewer & Mittleman reported that the positive impact of self disclosure breaks down at extreme levels of intimacy espeocally between strangers - content of the disclosure.

Question 22

Evaluate self disclosure as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Answer 22

• it is unlikely that attractiveness of a potential partner would be reliant purely on the level of self disclosure - it is more likely that self-disclosure would interact with other considerations, such as attractiveness.
• much research does not distinguish between friendship/companionship and romantic relationships making it diffciult to assess the role of SD soley in romance.
• The personality of recipients may be important too , different individuals would have different needs for levels of intimacy in relationships and this would affect how attractive they would find intimate self-disclosures.

Question 23

Describe physical attractiveness as a factor affecting attraction in romantic relationships

Answer 23

• P.A is an immediate and accessible way for potential partners to rate each other.
• individuals are not always competent in judging their own level of physical attractivenss, but generally people will agree on the physical attractiveness of a given individual , with greater agreement occuring among men as to the attractiveness of female.

Question 24

Describe the halo effect

Answer 24

• individuals seen as physically attractive tend to create a favourable impression of possessing desirable personality characteristics, such as being trustworthy, optimistic and sociable.
• Where a general impression of someone iis incorrectly formed from one characteristic,

Question 25

With reference to evolutionary theory, what are the indidcators of physical attractiveness

Answer 25

• in males , signs of genetic fitness are facial symmetry and muscularity, signs of healthy maturity are favoured too as they suggest resource richness.
• in females, indidicators of fertility are preferred such as signs of health , like lustrous heair and indidcators of youth.
• However gender differences in what constitute physical attractivness , differences occur across cultures.

Question 26

Describe the matching hypothesis

Answer 26

• the idea that individuals are attracted to people of similar percieved attractiveness.
• this involves individuals assessing their own level of PA and then focusing attention upon potential partners of perceived similar PA.

Question 27

Outline research on physical attractiveness

Answer 27

• Brigham: found that physically attractive people are seen as having desirable personality characteristis , including being sociable, interesting exciting and sexually warm.
• Murstein (1972): asked participants to assess form photographs the physical attractiveness levels of genuine couples and non-genuine couples ( who had been put together for the purpose of the study). It was found that the real couples were more likely to be judged as of similar levels of attractiveness to each other than the non-genuine couples, thus supporting the MH.

Question 28

Evaluate research on physical attractiveness

Answer 28

• In an earlier study Walster et al (1966) actually found that participants liked people who were more physically attractive and that PA was the best indicator by both males and females of wanting to see someone again. This goes against the MH though when asked months later it was found that participants who actually did date their partner again were of similar participants who acctually did date their partner again were of similiar levels of physical attractiveness, which supports the hypothesis.
• Although, physical beauty is an important form of attractiveness , those without it can compensate through complex matching , where they may pair up with a more physically attractive partner by being attractive in other ways, such as through walth or domestic skills.
• in many cultures, such as those practicisng arranged marriages, senior familty members are regarded as better judges of who is compatible as a partner for thier children and therefore attractivness will be judged on factors other than physical attractiveness.

Question 29

Describe the filter theory

Answer 29

• proposed by Kerckhoff & Davis in 1962.
• FT believes that choice of partners is affected by factors limiting the availability of those possible to select from. There is a series of filters that serves to “ thin down the filed” to those available.

Question 30

Give the three components to the filter theory.

Answer 30

1. Similarity of social demographic variables.
2. Similarity in attitudes
3. Complementarity

Question 31

Describe similarity of social demographic variables.

Answer 31

• focus is upon those individuals we are realistically likely to be able to meet and with whom we will have factors i common. Such indidviduals will generally be limited to those who live, work and socialise with us.
• with availability further limited to those of similar class , ethnic , religious educational and economic background to ourselves.
• Such people will appear attractive , as their similarity will make communication easier, aiding the development of a relationship.

Question 32

Describe similarity in attitudes

Answer 32

• Focus here is upon individuals meeting and socialising and thus being exposed to each other belief’s values and attitudes.
• Individuals who have similarity of attitudes will be percieved by each other as being more attractive and compatible.

Question 33

Describe complementarity.

Answer 33

• focus here is upon the degree to which potential partners meet each other needs especially emotional ones.
• Such complementarity helps to make a relationship “deeper” and thus less superficial and is regarded as the most important factor in establishing commitment towards a long relationship.

Question 34

Give research into filter theory

Answer 34

Taylor et al (2010): reported that 85% of Americans who got married in 2008 married someone of their own ethnic group, supporting social demography.
Sadalla et al (1987): found that women are attracted to males who are reliable, socially dominant , self-confident and extrovert , as such qualities indicate an ability to achieve a relativitely high position in society and thus meet their need for provision of resources. This supports the idea of complimentarity.
Dijztrka & Barelds (2008), who exmained the extent to which individuals were attracted to partners of similar or complementary personality characteristics, finding that complementary personalities were more preferred in both males and females.

Question 35

Evaluate filter theory

Answer 35

• the relative availability of potential partners due to social demography reasons changes over time as attiudes change to relationships between people of different backgrounds.
• Age is another limiting factors. People tend to socialise in similar age groups and where partners are of different ages, this tends to be between younger females and older men ,w ith a possible evolutioanry between younger females and older men, with a possible evolutionary explanation, with older men tend to be more resource rich and younger females more fertile.
• Males and females filter out different things, due to having different needs. This applies to age and culture, too. Indeed, FT can be accused of cultural bias , as most research was performed in individualistc cultures and therfore may not apply to collectivist cultures where relationships are affected by different limiting factors.

Question 36

What is social exchange theory?

Answer 36

• an economic explanation of relationship maintenance based on maximising profits and minimising costs.
• sees people as percieving their feelings for others in terms of profit. The greater the rewards and the lower the costs, the greater the profit and therefore the greater the desire to maintain the relationship.
• sees social interactions as involving an exchange of rewards such as affection, intimate information and status. The degree of attraction or liking between partners reflects how people evaluate the rewards they recieve relative to those given.
• assess their rewards by making 2 comparisons:
• The comparison level (CL); where rewards are compared against costs to judge profits.
• The CL for alternative relationships (CLalt) - where rewards and costs are compared against percieved rewards and costs for possible alternative relationships.

Question 37

’ Outline Thibuat & Kelley et al (1959) four-stage model of SET. ‘

Answer 37

• Setting out how relationships could be maintained. It percives that over time people develop a predicatable and mutually beneficial pattern of exchanges, assisiting the maintenance of relationships.
• Sampling: rewards and costs are assessd in a number of relationship
• Bargaining: a relationship is costed out and sources of profit and loss are identified.
• Commitment: relationship is established and maintained by a predictable exchange of rewards.
• Institutionalisation: Interactions are established and the couple “settle down”.

Question 38

Give research on social exchange theory

Answer 38

• Rusubult (1983): asked participants to complete questionnares over a seven-month period concerning rewards and costs associated with relationships, fidning that SET did not explain the early ‘honeymoon’ phase of a relationship when balance of exchanges was ignored. However, later on, relationship costs where compared against the degree of personal satisfaction , suggesting that the theory is best applied to maintenance of relationships.
• ## Rusbult & Martz found that women who had been physically assulated by their partners and were living in a women’s refuge were likely to return to their abusive partners, as they did not have better alternatives , often due to low levels of education , no job prospects and little access to money. This supports SET as the profits were seen to exceed the costs , despite the abusive relationship.

Question 39

Evaluate social learning theory

Answer 39

• equity theory still portrays people as selfish. Many researchers, like Duck (1988) prefer to see people as concerned with ana equitable distribution of rewards and costs for themselves and their partners.
• Thibaut (1978) proposed interdependence theory which suggests that not all social interactions reflect a shared desire for equity and fair exchange. Intimate relationships are varied and complex , and partner’s motives and desires can clash as well as coincide, producing capitulation , cooperation and intransigence. This goes beyond individual partners, considering the harmony and/or conflict between attitudes, motives , values or goals of people in social relationships.
• mills and clark beleive that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationshops , as much input is emotional and so unquantifiable, and to do so diminishes the quality of love.
• Sprecher )1986) beleives that close relationships are too complex to allow for precise assessement of various rewards and costs involved in establishing equity.

Question 40

what is equity theory?

Answer 40

• it believes individuals are motivated to achieve fairness in relationships and to feel dissatisfied with inequity.
• definitions of equity within a relationship can differ between individuals.
• maintenance of relationships occurs through balance and stability. Relationships which were inequatable leads to dissatisafaction and possible dissolution.

Question 41

Outline Walster et al’s 4 principles of equity

Answer 41

1. profit : rewards are maximised and costs maintained
2. distribution: trade-odds and compensation negotiated to achieve fairness in a relationship.
3. the greater the degree of percieved unfairness, the greater the sense of dissatisfaction.
4. if restoring equity is possible, maintenance will continue, with attempts made to realign equity.

Question 42

Outline research with equity theory

Answer 42

• Dainton (2003) studied 219 individuals in romanitic relationships, finding that those in relationships of percieved inequity had low relationship satisfaction, but were motivatred to return to an equitable state to maintain the relationship.
• Argyle found that people in close relationship do not think in terms of rewards and costs unless they feel dissatisfied, implying that equity , at least in a concious fashion, is not a valid explanation.
• Yum et al ( 2009) looked at different types of heterosexual romantic relationships in six different cultures. As predicted by equity theory, maintenance strategies differd , with individuals in percieived equitable relationships engaging in most maintenance strategies.

Question 43

Evaluate equity theory

Answer 43

• still portrays people as selfish. Many researchers , like Duck (‘88) prfer to see people as concerned with an equitable distrubution of rewards and costs for themselves and their partners.
• Sprecher )’86) beleives that close relationships are too complex to allow for precise assessment of various rewards and costs involved in establishing equity.
• Equity seems more importance to females , suggesting that the theory is not applicable to both genders. Hoschild & Machung (1986) found that women do most of the work to make relationships equitable.
• some research suggests that equity theory does not apply to ll cultures. Moghaddam et al found that US students prefer equity , but European students prefer equlity , suggesting that the theory reflects the values of US society.

Question 44

Describe Rusbault’s investment model of commitment

Answer 44

1. Satisfaction level refers to the positive v negative effect experienced in a relationship. Satisfaction is influeced by the degree to which a partner meets an individual’s needs. E.g. extent to which a partner meets one’s emotional and sexual needs.
2. Comparison with alternatives refers to the percieved desirability of the best alternative to the current relationship and is based upon the extent to which an individual’s needs could be met within that alternative relationship.
3. Investment Size: refers to the amount and importance of the resources associated with a relationship and the extent to which such resources would decline in value or be lost if the relationship was to end.

Question 45

Describe the two variables linked to commitment

Answer 45

1.** Equity:** the degree of fairness within a relationship. Inequity leads to distress and lack of satisfaction with a relationship and thus less commitment to it. Such distress can be relieved by ending the relationship.
2. Social Support: the degree of care and assistance from others, e.g. family + friends. If they approve , it produces a positive influence that increases commitment.

Question 46

Give research on Rusbault’s model of commitment

Answer 46

• Rusbult et al (‘98) administered the IMS questionnaire to participants in homosexual relationships, finding support for all factors of the model, as did Duffy when adminstering the same questionnare to marital relationships which suggests that the model explains commitment in a variety of relationnships.
• Van Lange (‘97) found support for all factors of the model in Taiwanese participants and this was coupled with similar found by Lin & Rusbult with Dutch participants , which suggests there is cross cultural validity.

Question 47

Evaluate Rusbult’s investment model of commitment

Answer 47

• research indicates that Rusbult’s model with its focus on commitment and what individuals have invested is a better predictor of maintenance in relationships than equity theory.
• It can explain why partners remain in abusive relationships , as the cost of losing what they have invested and committed to in the relationship may be too great , with no possible alternative relationships to turn to.
• Research that supports the investment model is highlt reliant on self-report measures , which may be subject to socially desirable and idealised answers , as well as researcher bias, casting some doubts on the validity of the results.
• explains infedelity , as a low satisfaction with a current relationship and high satisfacction with an alt relationship.

Question 48

Describe Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown

3.4

Answer 48

suggested an account of dissolution involving 4 sequential phases:
1. Intrapsychic: one partner privately percieves dissatsifaction with the relationship
2. Dyadic: the dissatisfaction is discussed. If it is not resolved , there is a move to the next stage
3. Social: the breakdown is made public. There is negotiation about children , finances and so on , with wider families and friends becoming involved.
4. Grave dressing: a post-relationship view of the break up is established, protecting self-esteem and rebuilding life towards new relationships.

Question 49

Give two characteristics associated with Duck’s model of breakdown

Answer 49

1. Intrapsychic phase: personal focus on partner behaviour + consider costs of withdrawal
2. Dyadic phase: confront partner / attempt at repair
3. Social phase: initiate discussion socially/blame-placing stories created
4. Grave-dressing phase: retrospective post-mortem attribution / perform ‘ getting over it’ activities.

Question 50

Give research on Duck’s model

Answer 50

• Kassin found that women are more likely to stress unhappiness and compatibility as reasons for dissolution , while men blame lack of sex. Women wish to remain friends whilst males want no contact, suggesting Duck does not consider gender differences.
• Tashiro & Frazier performed a survey of 92 students about their experiences after relationship breakdowns , finding a number of personal growth factors that helped in future. This supports Duck’s idea that through grave-dressing processes people are able to recover after dissolution.
• Akert (‘92) found that the person who instigated the break up suffers fewer negative consequences than the non-instigator, suggesting indidivudal differences that the model does not explain.

Question 51

Evaluate Duck’s model of relationship breakdown

Answer 51

• has face validity ; most people can relate to their own and/or other’s experiences.
• Research shows that Duck’’s four phases are not universal as they do not apply to every case nor occur sequentially.
• The model does not usually apply to homosexual relationships which may not involve some decisions over children. + not applicable to heterozeuxal who decide not to have children.
• does not take into account why dissatsifaction occurs ; its starting point is where dissattisfaction is already set. Therefore not a complete picture of dissolution

Question 52

what are virtual relationships?

3.5

Answer 52

• non-physical interactions between people communicating via social media

Question 53

How has virtual relationships been facilitated and how has that helped the formation of relationships?

Answer 53

• advancements in technology allows VR to be conducted visually in real time with webcams , increasing the quality of communication.
• online dating facilitates interracial and homosexual relatioships.
• social media gives greater access to VR as alllows indidviduals to see commonalities such as location , hobbies and age
• Participants in online conversation have more time to ‘edit’ their responses to present themselves in a more positive light; Walther calls this ‘selective self-presentation

Question 54

Give research on virtual relationships

Answer 54

• Mishna et al found that the vast majoirty of 16-24 year olds considered VR to be as real as their physical relationships and that the internet played a crucial role in sexual and romantic experiences of adolescents , illustrating the importance and acceptance of VR by the younger generation.
• Cornwell + Lundgren surveyed 80 chat rooms users to find that 28% admitted to misrepresenting their physical appearance, 23% their age and 18% their background, illustrating use of misrepresentation in VR.
• Stephure et al reported that most people in VR’s were seeking fun , companionship and communication.

Question 55

Evaluate Virtual Relationships

Answer 55

• non VR can have a virtual side to them. Lenhart & Duggan reported that 25% of Americans who are married or in long-term partnerships have texted their partner when both were at home together.
• Indeed 21% of phone and internet users in commited relationships report that they have felt closer to their parners as a result of online exchanges and 9% have resolved arguments online.
• These effects are even higher with younger people. 8% of people in commited relationships beleive their relationships has suffered due to their partners VR with others.

Question 56

Describe the effect of VR on self disclosure

Answer 56

• the anonymitiy of VR means that individuals can reveal intimate personal info with less fear of being socially embrassed by such information being leaked.
• intimacy develop more quickly than with face to face relationships and are based on more meaningful factors such as shared interests, rather than more superficial factors.
• SD creates high level of affection that are sustained if people in VR meet. This occurs due to a lack of physical info, which can help form initial impressions.
• SD in VR also carries a danger of dishonest individauls misrepresenting themselves in order to appear favourable so that they can successfully exploit people.

Question 57

Outline research on the effect of VR on self disclosure

Answer 57

• Yum&Hara found that American participants reported that greater disclosure in VR was associated with motr trust while Korean participants reported greater disclosure led to less trust, suggested that it is mediated by cultural factors.
• Peter et al found introverts were motivated to communicate online to compensate for their lack of social skills , which increased the motivation to make friends online, led to more SD and more intimacy.
• It was also found that extroverts self-disclosed more in VR which helped to develop their relationships further too.
• Schouten et al found that people high in social anxiety revealed greater SD in VR due to the lack of non verbal cues in oline communications , supporting the idea that people who have problems socialising in the physical world are able to SD more in VR.
• Walther (1996, 2011) proposed the hyperpersonal model, suggesting that, as self-disclosure in online relationships happens earlier than in face-to-face ones, relationships quickly become more intense and feel more intimate and meaningful. They can also end more quickly, however, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for a long time.

Question 58

Evaluate the effect of VR on self disclosure

Answer 58

• one of the fangers in self-disclosure inn VR is that individuals may be presenting their ideal self to their veirtual partner than theur real seld . Therefore the intimacy created can lead to idealisation of a vritual partner, which the person cannot live up to in realit.
• Social media creates social pressure upon individuals to conform to certain levels of intimiate discoloures that they are not truly happy with. This is especially true of sexting where females report pressure to send such sexts.
• There is a practical application in using VR as a therapy for the socially inept to learn social skills useful for shaping social relationships in the realworld. Can also be used to help those with a social phobia. ( Schouten + Peter ).
• However, Sproull and Kiesler (1986) suggested that online relationships might be less open and honest than face-to-face ones, because in real life we are relying on a lot of subtle cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice, and these cues are absent in virtual communications (Reduced Cues Theory). According to this theory, reduction in communication cues leads to de-individuation because it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity

Question 59

Describe the effects of the absence of gating on the nature of VR

Answer 59

• VR is not subject to the visual factors such as levels of physical attractiveness that face-to-face relationships are. This means less physically beautiful and socially skilled inidividuals have a greater chance to build relationships.

Question 60

Give research on the effect of absence of gating on VR

Answer 60

• Bargh et al found that intimacy developed more quickly with virtual than face to face relationshops because of a lack of gating features tht typically prevent intimate disclosures in face-face relationships. Supports lack of gating helps VR to grow more quickly.
• Mckenna found that the removal of physical gating features , such as level of physical atteactiveness , allowed certain disadvantaged people to bypass usual obstacles that hinder them from developing intimate relationships.
• Rosemann & Safir used questionnares to find that the online environment allowed individuals to experiment with and reveal non-conventional identities to others that would not be possible otherwise.

Question 61

Evaluate the effect of absence of gating on VR

Answer 61

• there is is a much wider potential group of people to form relationships with online , as VR , allows for a focus on common interests , attitudes , etc rather than being limited by more superficial but dominant gating features, such as level of physical attractiveness.
• research has not really considered that limiting gating features may differ between groups of people , for instance age and level of physical attractivenness are probably more of gating factors for females seeking male partners than for males seeking feamle partners.
• The majority of studies have used self-reports , which may be prone to idealised and socially desirable answers and thus not be providing valid data

Question 62

What are parasocial relationships?

Answer 62

• one-sided relationships occuring with media personalities outside of an individual’s real social network.

Question 63

what are the factors that lead to and influence parasocial relationships.

Answer 63

• occur in all age groups, but peak between 11-17 years of age, then decline slowly
• level of education is also a factor- the less education the greater the level of attraction to media personalities.
• originally percieveed as abnormal and thought ot have originated from factors such as neuroticism , isolation , loneliness, fear and a lack of social interactions.

Question 64

Give research on parasocial relationship

Answer 64

• Rubin et al found little correlation between loneliness and the strength of TV viewers parasocial relationships with onscreen characters which refute that it is a dysfunctional substitite for inadequate relationships.
• Giles 2000 found that younger people were more attracted to media personalities than older people, supporting the idea that parasocial relationships are affected by age factors.
• McCutcheon found a negative corelation of -0.4 between amoutn of education and amount of celebrity worship, suggesting that those with less education have a more intense interest.
• Gabrien gave students a questionnare measuring self-esteem and asked them to write an essay about their favourite celebrity , followed by the same questionnare. Participants initially scoring low , scored much higher after writing the essay , suggesting they incorporated the characteristics of the celebrtiy into themselves - positive impact

Question 65

Evaluate the acquirement of a parasocial relationship

Answer 65

• level of education is a factor in parasocial relatioshios as external high achievers may percieve the major media personalities as less educated than the major media personalitieis and therefore less worthy of positive regard.
• research into parasocial relatioships generally uses questionnares , which can be affected by socially desirable and idealsied answers and therefore lack validity. Fidnings also tend to be in the form of correlations which do not show causal relationships and may be affeccted by other variables
• For instance , the relationship between low levels of education and high levels of fandom may actually concern levels of intelliegence. McCutcheon et al (‘04) argue that low levels of education are associated with high levels of parasocial relationships because education is related to intelligence , and thus more intelligent people are better able to see the inadequacies of worshipping media personalities.

Question 66

Describe Mcrutcheon et al’s Celebrity Attitude Scale

Answer 66

1. Entertainment-social-sub scale : measures social aspects of PR , like discussing medi personalities with friends.
2. Intense-personal sub-scale : measures strength of feelings and levels of obsesion about media personalities.
3. Borderline-pathological sub-scale: measures levels of uncontrollable feelings and behaviours about media personalities.
   - it was concluded that PR have a single dimension with lower scoring individuals showig a keen interest in media personalities, while highb scorers tend to over identify and become obsessive

Question 67

Describe the absorption-addiction model

Answer 67

• believes that most individuals know that their degree of admiration for a media personality is because of their entertainement level and this degree of admiration will progress no further than that.
• some people may seek a more intense PR with a media personality to fill the dissatisfaction they feel in their own lives.
• in extreme causes , a PR becomes addictive and an individuals behaviour may become extreme, bordering on the abnormal and may involve criminal behaviour, like stalkiing.
• individuals may deelop an illusion that they genuinely are i an intimate relationship with the media personality.

Question 68

Describe Giles & Maltby’s levels of parasocial relationship

Answer 68

• entertainment social: individuals are attracted to media personalities because they are interesting
• intense-personal: individuals feel a connection with the media personality e.g. feeling that they are soul meets
• borderline-pathological: indidivuals in this categroy have uncontrollable behaviours and obsessive fantasies about their media personality which are completetely divorced from reality and which prevent them living a normal life.

Question 69

Summarise Houran’s CWS research

procedure and aim

Answer 69

• aim: to assess the prevalene of CWS and understand why individuals develop a fascination with media persoalities.
• 600 participants completed a personality test and interviews about their interest in media personalities.
• Participants rated statements like if she asked me to something illegal as a favour , i would do it.
• 1/ 3 exhbiited CWS

Question 70

Give the findings to Houran’s CWS research

Answer 70

Entertainment-Social (20%): People follow celebrities for entertainment, often extroverts.
**Intense-Personal (10%): **Addictive attitudes, believing in a special bond with the celebrity. These individuals are neurotic, emotional, and moody.
Borderline-Pathological (1%): Impulsive, antisocial, and self-centred behaviour indicative of psychosis, including stalking and willingness to harm themselves or others for their idol.

Question 71

Evaluate Houran’s CWS research

Question 72

Outline research on characteristics associated with PR

Answer 72

Purcell et al (2002) found female stalkers were of a nurturing disposition were searching for intimacy and stalked people they knew offering a reason as to why celebrtity stalking is usually by males.
Maltby et al (2003) used Eysenck’s personality questionnare to find that individuals in the entertainment-social level scored highly on extroversion , while those in the intense-personal level scored highly on neuroticism. This suggests that an individual’s level of involvement in PR is mediated by personality factors.

Question 73

Evaluate the levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 73

• Maltby’s entertainment-social dimension of parasocial relationships is consistent with Stever’s observation that fans are attracted to media personalities due to their percieved ability to entertain
• Research into the AA model suggests people tend to become interested in celebrities at times when they are looking for direction in life.

Question 74

Describe the Attachment theory explanation for parasocial relationships

Answer 74

• The tendency for parasocial relationships to be formed by those with insecure childhood attachments.
• those with insecure resistant attachment types are more likely to form PRs such indidivduals have a need for close emotional relationships , but ones in which there is a reduced risk of rejection.
• in a parasocial relationship an individual can have a close intimate bond to a media persoanlity, but as the media personality is not aware of this relationship , there is no chance that they will reject the individual.

Question 76

Give research on the attachement theory

Answer 76

Kienlan et al found that 63% of stalkers experienced a loss of primrary caregivers during childhood usually due to parental separation whle more than 50% reported childhood emotional , physical or sexual abuse by primary caregivers. This supports the idea that disturbed attachment partners are related to extreme forms of PR.
Cole & Leets found that teenagers with insecure resitstant attachments werte more likely to have parasocial relationships with TV media personalities than those with secure and insecure avoidant attachments.
McCutcheon found no relationship between childhood attachment patterns and mild forms of celeb worship , suggesting that it is only more intense forms of parasocial relationships that are related to attachment types.

Question 77

Evaluate the attachment theory explanation for PR

Answer 77

• Ross & Spinner have indicated that there is variation in attachment styles across significant relationships. If this also applies to PR it would mean linking a specific attachemnt pattern to such relationships is not valid.
• Supported by a key component of attachment theory , that of seeking proximity to the attachment figure. Those in PR seek closeness to their admired media personality.
• individuals look to attachment figures as a safe base ; those in PR do the same. Stever cites examples where indidivuals who have experienced loss of a loved one found comfort in PR , for instance with pop stars who speak to them through their lyrics.