Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Outline Wundt ‘s approach to psychology
A
- used introspection where one examines one own thought processes and Wundt’s researchers were trained to examine theirs for feeling , emotions and sensations.
- researchers would then report back to him wat they had experienced and their analysis of that experience.
- ## He found that these reports could not be replicated and were therefore unreliable, as the experience was too subjective ( meaning it was based soley on one person’s opinion/viewpoint.
2
Q
Evaluate Wundt and the origins of psychology - positives
A
- wundt’s work was highly scientific , due to the controlled experiements , large sample sizes and transparent methods he used. The systematic approach allowed him to develop general theories of mental processes and enabled other researchers to replicate his findings.
- use of inferences influenced cognitive psychologists , these researchers ask participants to complete tasks under experimental conditions , and the participant’s ability to complete these takss is used to make inferences about the structure of internal mental processes.
3
Q
Evaluate Wundt and the origins of psychology - negatives
A
- Wundt’s use of inference to identify internal metnal states has been criticised , inferences are assumptions , so they could be mistaken. Behaviourist psychologists rejected the study of internal mental states. They only studied fully observable stimulus-response mechanisms because these behaviourist findings were more reliable and behaviourism is seen as an approach more in line with scientific principles.
- Wundt’s introspective methofs are considered subjective and are not classified as truly scientific. Participants cannot be relied on to accurately report their mental states , as they are baised , mistaken or influenced by demand characteristics.
4
Q
outline the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
- Assumes that behaviour is learned from experience.
- To explore the learning process, behaviourists believe it should be scientific objective and observable so the laboratory experiment is favoured over other methods.
- Ivan Pavlov and BF Skinner were leading theorists.
5
Q
What is classical conditioning?
- behaviourist approach
A
- Classical conditioning, also known as learning by association , argues an unconditioned response (e.g., salivating to food) can be triggered by a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of footsteps) through repeated pairing. Eventually, the neutral stimulus alone produces the conditioned response (e.g., salivating to the metronome’s sound).
6
Q
Outline Pavlov’s research on classical conditioning.
A
- Pavlov used dogs who were first presented with food (UCS)- which triggered salivation (UCR) - then rang a bell (NS) . Bell became associated to food , after each feeding ,eventually salivation was triggered when bell was heard.
- Stimulus generalisation:
Pavlov found that if varied tone + pitch of bell, still salivate - so if stimulus similar to CS (bell) then association will also be made to that new stimulus - Stimulus discrimination → When stimulus is not associated with CR as too different from original stimulus (e.g. dog respond to walk not talk)
- Temporal contiguity → UCS + NS have to be paired together at around / same time for association to be made.
7
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
- Operant conditioning is learning by reinforcement.
- When a creature performs voluntary responses, it learns from the consequences of those actions.
- Consequences that are rewarding reinforce a behaviour, so they are performed more frequently, and actions that result in consequences that are punishing are performed less.
8
Q
Outline Skinner’s research on operant conditioning
A
- In Skinner’s research, rats were placed in an enclosed apparatus known as a “Skinner box”.
- Inside the box, there was a lever that the rats could press.
- Each press of the lever would dispense a food pellet as a reward.
- Skinner recorded the frequency and conditions under which the rats pressed the lever, systematically varying the reinforcement schedules.
- There was an electric shock as punishment. Actions that avoided the shock, such as pulling down the lever, were rewarded (negative reinforcement), while pressing the lever for food provided positive reinforcement.
9
Q
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
A
- it is scientific because it studies objectively observable and measurable stimulus-response mechanisms. They establish cause-and-effect relationships through highly controlled lab experiments that manipulate variables systematically.
- Such standardised procedures allowed for the replication of Pavlov and Skinner’s work.
- Extrapolation issues as biological + physiological differences so their findings may not be generalisable to human behaviour. Complex social and cultural forces influence human behaviour, so simple stimulus-response mechanisms may not adequately explain human behaviour.
- ## Do not argue that we have control over our own behaviour which is deterministic. This means there are ramifications for legislation , such as the idea of someone not being in control of their actions if they commit a crime.
10
Q
Outline the basic assumptions of social learning theory
A
- Behaviour is learned from the environment and from observing others + the reward / punishment they receive.
- It believes that behaviour can be learnt through:
- Imitation : observes a role model + copies it.
- Modelling: role model influences individual so imitate behaviour
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Vicarious Reinforcement: imitation more likely if reward is observed.
-** Identification**: imitation is more likely to occur in shared characteristics as we identify with them.
11
Q
outline the mediational processes
A
- Argue that human behaviour couldnt be fully understood without including cognitive processes that happen between stimuli and response.
- MP are attention , retention, reproduction and motivation and must happen between observing a model perform a behaviour (stimuli) and imitating that behaviour (response).
12
Q
A
13
Q
Outline Bandura’s Bobo Doll research
A
- Participants: 36 American boys and 36 girls aged 3-5.
- Each child observed either an aggressive or non-aggressive adult role model (male or female) interacting with a doll.
- After 10 minutes, children were moved to a different room and subjected to aggression arousal by being told they couldn’t play with the toys.
- After 2 minutes, children were taken to a third room with both aggressive and non-aggressive toys, including a Bobo doll, and observed for 20 minutes.
Findings: - Children who observed the aggressive role model acted more aggressively.
- Boys displayed more aggression than girls.
- Higher imitation occurred when the role model was of the same gender.
14
Q
Evaluate Social learning theory
A
- Bandura’s research only demonstrated short-term social learning; aggression may not be imitated weeks or months after observation.
- The study’s ecological validity can also be questioned, as the aggression observed in a controlled labsetting may not directly translate to real-world scenarios, such as imitating televised violence in school environments.
- An advantage of SLT over behaviourism is it’s a less reductionist approach, giving a more detailed and potentially more valid understanding of human behaviour.
- ## SLT acknowledges the roles of consciousness and rationality, providing a more believable explanation for complex behaviours like aggression.
15
Q
what is the biological approach
A
- To understand human behaviour , it is necessary to understand internal biological structures and processes such as genes and neurochemistry.
biological approach
16
Q
Outline how genetics is believed to influence behaviour
biological approach
A
- believes that genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour. It is believed that behaviour evolves the same way as physical characteristics through the process of evolutionary adaptations.
- Genotypes are the genetic codes in the DNA for the characteristics of an organism; phenotypes are the physical expression of the genotype.
- Biological psychologists argue that there are genotypes for behaviours, and the phenotype is the expression of the behaviour (e.g. being aggressive).
- Gottesman (1991) studied schizophrenia - finding a 48% concordance rate amongst MZ twins and a 17% concordance rate amongst DZ twins - suggesting a strong genetic component to the condition.
17
Q
Outline how neurochemistry is believed to influence behaviour
A
- Behaviour is assumed to be a cause from neurochemistry. This is the actions of chemicals within the brain, chemical transmission allows our thoughts and behaviour to be processed and to occur. - Neurotransmitters are used in the process; they are brain chemicals that are released from the synaptic vesicles that relay signals up and down the synapse – one neuron to another.
- (Crockett et al. 2008), found that abnormally low levels of serotonin are linked to aggressive behaviour, indicating that this neurotransmitter is important in regulating behaviour and impulse control (Crockett et al., 2008).
biological approach
18
Q
Evaluate the biological approach
positives
A
- A benefit of the biological approach is its practical applications, particularly in developing drug therapies for mental health conditions like schizophrenia, OCD, and depression.
- These therapies, such as SSRIs that reduce serotonin reuptake, target specific neurochemical processes. Millions of people have benefited from these medications,achieving better functioning.
positives
19
Q
Evaluate the biological approach
negatives
A
- Biological determinism, the belief that all actions are predetermined by biological factors, has significant implications.
- Arguing criminal behaviour is due to a “criminal gene” could challenge legal principles of responsibility, as individuals cannot choose their genes.
- Suggesting mental health issues are solely to biology could imply that individuals have no control over their conditions.
- diathesis-stress response explanations include both biological and environmental factors and can be applied to mental health and aggression.
- This argument suggests we inherit a genetic vulnerability (diathesis), which is later triggered by a stressor, factors like childhood neglect, a traumatic event or adult drug use.
- Without the presence of the stressor, the individual can experience normal mental health.
20
Q
Outline the psychodynamic approach
A
- The psychodynamic approach is based on Sigmund Freud’s concept that the mind and personality is split into the Id, Ego and Superego.
- This idea presents how the mind functions and how behaviour is performed, and that most of our mind is significantly made up of the unconscious.
21
Q
Outline Freud’s **tripartite structure **of personality
A
- NEWBORN INFANT : The id is pure erotic energy: It is governed by primal urges that Freud called drives, and seeks nothing but pleasure , often associated with hedonism.
- 18 MONTHS : The ego is governed by the reality principle and is tasked with taming the id. The ego is conscious and aware of the demands of others outside of the self. It arises in response to the control over desires exercised by others, especially parents.
- AGE THREE: The superego is conscience, that inner voice that tells us when we have transgressed the bounds of acceptable behaviour: It is the internalised parent and comes into being reluctantly in response to parental discipline.
22
Q
outline the psychosexual stages
A
- Oral Stage (0-1)
- Anal Stage (1-3 years)
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
- Latency Stage (7 years to adolescence)
- Genital Stage (puberty onwards)
23
Q
outline the oral stage
A
Oral Stage (0-1 year):: Focuses on oral pleasures like drinking milk or sucking a dummy. Insufficient oral pleasure can lead to oral fixations such as smoking or nail-biting in adulthood.
24
Q
outline the anal,phallic,latency stage
A
- Anal Stage (1-3 years): Satisfaction comes from relieving faeces and toilet training.
- Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Focuses on the genital area. Unresolved conflicts can lead to a reckless character and narcissistic tendencies.
- **Latency Stage (7 years to adolescence): **Earlier conflicts are repressed, allowing growth and development. Sexual feelings are dormant during this stage.
25
Outline the **genital stage**
-** Genital Stage (puberty onwards):** Sexual desires become conscious.Struggles in forming relationships can occur if earlier conflicts are not resolved.
26
what are **defense mechanisms**?
| give examples
- strategies involving the unconscious mind that the ego can use to manage unresolvable conflicts. These mechanisms reduce the anxiety felt by the conflict between the id and the superego
- Denial: refusal to acknowledge / accept reality + blocked from conscious awareness.
- Repression → unconscious defence mechanism employed by ego to keep disturbing memories from becoming conscious
- Displacement → Redirection of an (aggressive) impulse (emotion) onto powerless substitute object.
- Rationalisation
- Regression
- Reaction formation-
27
Outline Little Hans research
- Hans developed a phobia of horses, which his father documented and sent to Freud for analysis.
- Phallic Stage Development: Hans was in the phallic stage, showing an interest in his penis ("widdler") after noticing horses had larger ones.
- Oedipus Complex: Hans experienced sexual attraction toward his mother and viewed his father as a rival for her affection.
- Castration Anxiety: Hans feared his father would punish him (castration anxiety) for his desires.
Outcome: Hans eventually recovered from his phobia
28
Evaluate ***Little Hans ***research:
- Findings from the case study support Freud’s theories, particularly the Oedipus complex.
- Freud believed that Hans was afraid his father would castrate him for desiring his mother. He interpreted the horses in Hans' phobia as symbolic of the father, suggesting that Hans feared the horse (representing his father) would bite (castrate) him as punishment for his incestuous desires toward his mother.
- However, the case study lacks generalizability. Freud only met Hans once, and all the information came from Hans' father, who was an admirer of Freud’s theories and tried to put them into practice with his son.
- This admiration may have led to bias in how Hans' father interpreted and reported Hans' behavior to Freud. - Additionally, Freud's idea of psychosexual stages was published prior to the analysis, which could have influenced the interpretation from a biased perspective.
29
**Evaluate** the **psychodynamic** approach
- Many of Freud's ideas lack scientific credibility, as they were developed and supported through case studies and by interpreting his clients' memories, introspections and dreams. The case study of Little Hanz was used to support the psychosexual stages of development.
- However, Little Hanz's parents were fans of Freud's work and likely recorded events and conversations that would support Freud's ideas, and Freud's interpretations were potentially biassed.
- The effectiveness of Psychodynamics' practical application, psychoanalytic therapy, a form of talking therapy, has been demonstrated by De Maat's meta-analysis of 27 studies, including over five thousand participants. As many individuals claim to have been successfully treated, the psychodynamic ideas on which psychoanalysis is based have some validity.
- However, a limitation is that it has untestable concepts. Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criteria of falsification THROUGH EMPIRICAL TESTING . Many of Freud's concepts such as the Id and the Oedipus complex are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult, if not impossible, to test. According to Popper this affords the psychodynamic theory the status of pseudoscience rather than a real science.
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