Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
define experimental method
A
- concerns the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured and stated in results.
2
Q
Define independent and dependent variable
A
- DV: the factor measured by researchers in an investigation.
- IV: the factor manipulated by researchers in an investigation.
3
Q
define operationalisation of variables
A
- the process of defining variables into measurable factors.
- Without it, results will be unreliable and could not be replicated to check their validity, however only one aspect of a variable is being measured.
4
Q
Define **extraneous **variables and how they differ from confounding vairables.
A
- variables other than the IV that might affect the DV. They are controllled so that they do not vary acroess any of the experimental conditions or between participants.
- Confounding variables are uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect results.
5
Q
Give the three main types of extraneous variables.
A
- Participant variables: concern factros such as participants’ age and intelligence.
- Situational variables: concern the experimental setting and surrounding environment e.g. temperature.
- Experimenter variables: concern changes in the personality, appearance and conduct of the researcher e.g male vs female researchers.
6
Q
define demand characteristics
one way it is reduced
A
- features of a piece of research whihch allow the participants to work out its aim/hypotheses.
- Participants may then change their behaviour and so frustrate the aim of the research.
- the single-blind procedure is a technique tht reduces DC as it invovles participants having no idea which condition of a study they are in.
7
Q
what are investigator effects?
A
- A research effect where researcher features influence participants’ responses e.g.:
- physical characteristics: age, ethinicity or gender : male participnts may be more uniwilling to admit sexist views to female researchers.
- less obvious personal characteristics , accent or tone.
- investigatord may be unconceiously biased in their interpretation of data and find whay they expect to find.
8
Q
How to reduce investigator effects?
A
- the double blind procedure is a technique to redice investigator effects , which involves neither pariticpants not investigators knowing which condition particiapnts are in.
- This prevents investigators from unconciosuy giving pariticapnts clues as tp which condition there in , reducing demand characteristics.
9
Q
what are laboratory experiements
A
- experiments performed in a controlled environment, using standardised procedure, with particiapnts randomly allocated to experimental groups.
10
Q
Outline the advantages of lab experiments
A
- High degree of control : experimenters control all variables and the IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured, leading to greater accuracy.
- Replication.
- Cause and effect relationship can be determined: All other variables are controlled, the effect must be caused soley by the manipulation of the IV.
- Isolation of variables.
11
Q
Outline the weaknesses of laboratory experiments.
A
- Experimenter bias expectations can affect results and this may influence expectations.
- Problems operationalising the IV and DV.
- Low external (ecological) validity: high degrees of control make situations aritifican and unlike real life.
- Demand characteristics: Participants are aware theyr’re being tested and so may unconciously alter their behaviour.
12
Q
What is a field experiment?
A
- experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the independent variable.
13
Q
What is a natural experiment?
A
- the IV occurs naturally and is not manipulated, but records the effect on the DV.
- random alloation of participants is not possible.
14
Q
What is the Quasi experiment?
A
- The researcher is unable to freely manipulate the independent variable or randomly allocate the particiapants to the different conditions.
- random alloation of participants is not possible.
15
Q
A
16
Q
Outline the advantages of field and natural experiments
A
- High ecological validity: Due to the real world environment, results relate to everyday behaviour and can be generalised to other settings.
- No demand characteristics.
17
Q
Outline the weaknesses of the field and natural experiments.
A
- Less control: it is more difficult to control extraneous variables, so causality is harder to establish.
- Replication: difficult to repeat as conditions are not the exact same.
- Ethics: When unawate that they are in an experiment, it incurs a lack of informed consent.
- Sample bias: not random allocation so samples may not be comparable to each other.
18
Q
Outline the two different types of observation.
A
- Particiapnt observation: involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands on perspective.
- Non-participant observation: involves researchers not become actively involved in the behaviour being studied.
19
Q
Outline covert and overt observational techniques.
A
overt: where participants are aware they are being observed.
covert: where participants remain unaware of being observed
20
Q
Outline the advantages of observational techniques
A
- High external validity: natural behaviour and so results can be generalised to other settings.
- Practical Method: can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical.
- Few demand characteristics: With covert observations , participants are unaware of being observed and so there are no demand characteristics.
21
Q
Outline the weaknesses of observational techniques.
A
- cause and efect : causality can not be inferred , since variables are not manipulated , and there is little control of extraeous variables.
- Observer bias: May see what they want to see , can be reduced by establishing inter-observer reliability.
- Replication : lack of control over variables means conditions can never be repaeated exactyly to check the results.
- Ethics: If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of pricacy and informed consent arise.
- Practical problems: It can be difficult to remain and unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour.
22
Q
what are naturalistic observations?
A
- pbserving and recording naturally occuring events such as in real-world settings using tools like visual recordings.
23
Q
How are behavioural used in observational studies?
A
- observers use grids or coding systems to record behaviour, with categories that reflect the focus of the studye.g. age and sex effects on driving speed.
24
Q
How can behaviours be coded or rated in observational studies.
A
- coding can involve numbers or letters to represent characteristiccs (e.g. M for male) and behaviour ca be rated on scales e.g. 1-5 for ‘safe driving@.
25
What are behavioural categories?
- Dividing target behaviours into subsets using coding systems that match the focus of the study.
26
Give the 2 types of sampling procedures used in observational studies.
Event sampling: Coutning the number of times a behaviour occurs in a targer individual or group.
Time sampling: Counting behaviour within a set time frame (e.g. every 30 seconds).
27
What is inter-observer reliability?
- Where observers consistently code behaviour in the same way.
- Lessens the chance of observer bias , where an observer sees and records behavior in a subjective way.
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28
Define self-report techniques
- participants giving information about themselves without researcher interference.
29
What are questionnares and describe the difference between closed and open questions?
- self-report method where participants record their own answers to a pre-set list of questions.
- closed: involve yes/no answers. - Easy to quantify but restrict participant's answers.
- Open: allow participants to answer in their own words.. More difficult to anlayse , but allow freedom of expression and greater depth of answers.
30
Outline the advanatges of questionnares
- Quick: compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
- Lack of investigator effects: Questionnaers can be completed without researchers present.
- Quantitative and qualititative analyses : closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer fuller detail.
- Replication: as questionnares use standardised questions, they are easy to replicate.
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Outline the weaknesses of questionnares.
- Misunderstanding: participants may misinterpret questions. There can also be problems with technical terms , emotive language and leading questions.
- Biased samples: questionnares are suitable for people who are willing to fill in questionnares and not be respresentative of the whole population.
- low response rates: uneconomical method as they can get very low return rates.
- superficial issues: not suitable for topics which require deep understanding.
- social desirability/idealised answer: pariticpants may lie in order to give ansers expected of them or may give answers that relfect how they would like to be , rather than how they actually are.
32
Outline the construction of a questionnare.
- Aims
- length: questionnares should be short.
- previous questionnares: use similar questionares as a basis for questionnare design.
- Question formation: Questions should be concise , unambioguius and easily understood.
- Pilot study: questionnaers should be tested on people who can provide detaled nd honest feedback on all aspects of the design of the questionnare.
- Measurement Scales.
33
what are interviews and outline the three main types.
- Self-report method where particiapants answer questions in face to face situations
- 1. Structured: involves identical closed Qs being read to pariticapnts with the interviewer writing down answers.
- 2. Unstructured: involves an informal discussion on a particular topic. Can ask follow-up qs.
- 3. Semi-structured: involves combining strucutred and unstructured techniques, providing quantitiaave and qualitative data.
34
Outline the advantages of interviews.
- complex issues: complicated or sensitive issues can be dealth with in face-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
- Ease misunderstandings: any misunderstood questions can be explained and indivual questions can be adapred so they are understood by all participants.
- Data Analysis: Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitiative data, which can be used to complement each other.
- Replication : easier to it is to replicate. Unstructured interviews are less easy to replciate but allows for data review.
35
Outline the weaknesses of interviews.
- Inteviewer effects: may be uconciously bias answers, like by their apperance.
- Interview training: a lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particulary concerning sensitive issues.
- Ethical issues: Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview anf there is also the danger that pariticapnts may reveal more than they wish.
- Participant answers: interviews are not suited to participants who ahve difficulty putting their feelings, opinions , etc into words.
36
Outline the variables affecting the design of interviews
- Gender and age: the sex and age of interviewers affect participants' answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
- - ethnicity: Word et al fiiund that whte particiaptns sept 25% less time intervieeing black job applicants that white applicants.
- personal characteristics.
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