Research Methods

Question 1

define experimental method

Answer 1

• concerns the manipulation of an independent variable to have an effect on the dependent variable which is measured and stated in results.

Question 2

Define independent and dependent variable

Answer 2

• DV: the factor measured by researchers in an investigation.
• IV: the factor manipulated by researchers in an investigation.

Question 3

define operationalisation of variables

Answer 3

• the process of defining variables into measurable factors.
• Without it, results will be unreliable and could not be replicated to check their validity, however only one aspect of a variable is being measured.

Question 4

Define **extraneous **variables and how they differ from confounding vairables.

Answer 4

• variables other than the IV that might affect the DV. They are controllled so that they do not vary acroess any of the experimental conditions or between participants.
• Confounding variables are uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect results.

Question 5

Give the three main types of extraneous variables.

Answer 5

1. Participant variables: concern factros such as participants’ age and intelligence.
2. Situational variables: concern the experimental setting and surrounding environment e.g. temperature.
3. Experimenter variables: concern changes in the personality, appearance and conduct of the researcher e.g male vs female researchers.

Question 6

define demand characteristics

one way it is reduced

Answer 6

• features of a piece of research whihch allow the participants to work out its aim/hypotheses.
• Participants may then change their behaviour and so frustrate the aim of the research.
• the single-blind procedure is a technique tht reduces DC as it invovles participants having no idea which condition of a study they are in.

Question 7

what are investigator effects?

Answer 7

• A research effect where researcher features influence participants’ responses e.g.:
• physical characteristics: age, ethinicity or gender : male participnts may be more uniwilling to admit sexist views to female researchers.
• less obvious personal characteristics , accent or tone.
• investigatord may be unconceiously biased in their interpretation of data and find whay they expect to find.

Question 8

How to reduce investigator effects?

Answer 8

• the double blind procedure is a technique to redice investigator effects , which involves neither pariticpants not investigators knowing which condition particiapnts are in.
• This prevents investigators from unconciosuy giving pariticapnts clues as tp which condition there in , reducing demand characteristics.

Question 9

what are laboratory experiements

Answer 9

• experiments performed in a controlled environment, using standardised procedure, with particiapnts randomly allocated to experimental groups.

Question 10

Outline the advantages of lab experiments

Answer 10

• High degree of control : experimenters control all variables and the IV and DV are precisely operationalised and measured, leading to greater accuracy.
• Replication.
• Cause and effect relationship can be determined: All other variables are controlled, the effect must be caused soley by the manipulation of the IV.
• Isolation of variables.

Question 11

Outline the weaknesses of laboratory experiments.

Answer 11

• Experimenter bias expectations can affect results and this may influence expectations.
• Problems operationalising the IV and DV.
• Low external (ecological) validity: high degrees of control make situations aritifican and unlike real life.
• Demand characteristics: Participants are aware theyr’re being tested and so may unconciously alter their behaviour.

Question 12

What is a field experiment?

Answer 12

• experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the independent variable.

Question 13

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 13

• the IV occurs naturally and is not manipulated, but records the effect on the DV.
• random alloation of participants is not possible.

Question 14

What is the Quasi experiment?

Answer 14

• The researcher is unable to freely manipulate the independent variable or randomly allocate the particiapants to the different conditions.
• random alloation of participants is not possible.

Question 16

Outline the advantages of field and natural experiments

Answer 16

• High ecological validity: Due to the real world environment, results relate to everyday behaviour and can be generalised to other settings.
• No demand characteristics.

Question 17

Outline the weaknesses of the field and natural experiments.

Answer 17

• Less control: it is more difficult to control extraneous variables, so causality is harder to establish.
• Replication: difficult to repeat as conditions are not the exact same.
• Ethics: When unawate that they are in an experiment, it incurs a lack of informed consent.
• Sample bias: not random allocation so samples may not be comparable to each other.

Question 18

Outline the two different types of observation.

Answer 18

1. Particiapnt observation: involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands on perspective.
2. Non-participant observation: involves researchers not become actively involved in the behaviour being studied.

Question 19

Outline covert and overt observational techniques.

Answer 19

overt: where participants are aware they are being observed.
covert: where participants remain unaware of being observed

Question 20

Outline the advantages of observational techniques

Answer 20

• High external validity: natural behaviour and so results can be generalised to other settings.
• Practical Method: can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical.
• Few demand characteristics: With covert observations , participants are unaware of being observed and so there are no demand characteristics.

Question 21

Outline the weaknesses of observational techniques.

Answer 21

• cause and efect : causality can not be inferred , since variables are not manipulated , and there is little control of extraeous variables.
• Observer bias: May see what they want to see , can be reduced by establishing inter-observer reliability.
• Replication : lack of control over variables means conditions can never be repaeated exactyly to check the results.
• Ethics: If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of pricacy and informed consent arise.
• Practical problems: It can be difficult to remain and unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour.

Question 22

what are naturalistic observations?

Answer 22

• pbserving and recording naturally occuring events such as in real-world settings using tools like visual recordings.

Question 23

How are behavioural used in observational studies?

Answer 23

• observers use grids or coding systems to record behaviour, with categories that reflect the focus of the studye.g. age and sex effects on driving speed.

Question 24

How can behaviours be coded or rated in observational studies.

Answer 24

• coding can involve numbers or letters to represent characteristiccs (e.g. M for male) and behaviour ca be rated on scales e.g. 1-5 for ‘safe driving@.

Question 25

What are behavioural categories?

Answer 25

• Dividing target behaviours into subsets using coding systems that match the focus of the study.

Question 26

Give the 2 types of sampling procedures used in observational studies.

Answer 26

Event sampling: Coutning the number of times a behaviour occurs in a targer individual or group.
Time sampling: Counting behaviour within a set time frame (e.g. every 30 seconds).

Question 27

What is inter-observer reliability?

Answer 27

• Where observers consistently code behaviour in the same way.
• ## Lessens the chance of observer bias , where an observer sees and records behavior in a subjective way.

Question 28

Define self-report techniques

Answer 28

• participants giving information about themselves without researcher interference.

Question 29

What are questionnares and describe the difference between closed and open questions?

Answer 29

• self-report method where participants record their own answers to a pre-set list of questions.
• closed: involve yes/no answers. - Easy to quantify but restrict participant’s answers.
• Open: allow participants to answer in their own words.. More difficult to anlayse , but allow freedom of expression and greater depth of answers.

Question 30

Outline the advanatges of questionnares

Answer 30

• Quick: compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
• Lack of investigator effects: Questionnaers can be completed without researchers present.
• Quantitative and qualititative analyses : closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer fuller detail.
• Replication: as questionnares use standardised questions, they are easy to replicate.

Question 31

Outline the weaknesses of questionnares.

Answer 31

• Misunderstanding: participants may misinterpret questions. There can also be problems with technical terms , emotive language and leading questions.
• Biased samples: questionnares are suitable for people who are willing to fill in questionnares and not be respresentative of the whole population.
• low response rates: uneconomical method as they can get very low return rates.
• superficial issues: not suitable for topics which require deep understanding.
• social desirability/idealised answer: pariticpants may lie in order to give ansers expected of them or may give answers that relfect how they would like to be , rather than how they actually are.

Question 32

Outline the construction of a questionnare.

Answer 32

• Aims
• length: questionnares should be short.
• previous questionnares: use similar questionares as a basis for questionnare design.
• Question formation: Questions should be concise , unambioguius and easily understood.
• Pilot study: questionnaers should be tested on people who can provide detaled nd honest feedback on all aspects of the design of the questionnare.
• Measurement Scales.

Question 33

what are interviews and outline the three main types.

Answer 33

• Self-report method where particiapants answer questions in face to face situations
• 1. Structured: involves identical closed Qs being read to pariticapnts with the interviewer writing down answers.
• 2. Unstructured: involves an informal discussion on a particular topic. Can ask follow-up qs.
• 3. Semi-structured: involves combining strucutred and unstructured techniques, providing quantitiaave and qualitative data.

Question 34

Outline the advantages of interviews.

Answer 34

• complex issues: complicated or sensitive issues can be dealth with in face-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
• Ease misunderstandings: any misunderstood questions can be explained and indivual questions can be adapred so they are understood by all participants.
• Data Analysis: Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitiative data, which can be used to complement each other.
• Replication : easier to it is to replicate. Unstructured interviews are less easy to replciate but allows for data review.

Question 35

Outline the weaknesses of interviews.

Answer 35

• Inteviewer effects: may be uconciously bias answers, like by their apperance.
• Interview training: a lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particulary concerning sensitive issues.
• Ethical issues: Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview anf there is also the danger that pariticapnts may reveal more than they wish.
• Participant answers: interviews are not suited to participants who ahve difficulty putting their feelings, opinions , etc into words.

Question 36

Outline the variables affecting the design of interviews

Answer 36

• Gender and age: the sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
• • ethnicity: Word et al fiiund that whte particiaptns sept 25% less time intervieeing black job applicants that white applicants.
• personal characteristics.