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Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is a correlation

A

A relationship between two continuous co-variables.

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2
Q

What is a case study?

A

Detailed analysis of an unusual individual or event.

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3
Q

What are the characteristic of a case study?

A

May involved case history. Qualitative and quantitative data. Tend to be longitudinal.

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4
Q

Case study strengths

A

Insight into unusual cases provides understanding of usual functioning.

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5
Q

Case study limitations

A

Generalisation from small samples. Conclusions based on subjective interpretation of researchers, subjective data from participants.

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6
Q

What is content analysis

A

A form of observation in which communication is studied indirectly

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7
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Number based, countable and measurable

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8
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Interpretation bases, descriptive and relating to language

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9
Q

What are the strengths of content analysis?

A

Fewer ethical issues, high external validity, flexible approach that can be adapted.

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10
Q

What are the limitations of content analysis?

A

Information may be studied out of context and be subjective. Reflexivity aims to address the issue of bias.

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11
Q

What is reliability?

A

A measure of consistency. Any measurement should produce the same result unless the thing it is measuring has changed

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12
Q

What are the ways of assessing reliability?

A

Test-retest
Inter-observer reliability

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13
Q

How do you improve reliability in questionnaires?

A

Some items may need to be changed to close questions as these are less ambiguous.

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14
Q

How do you improve reliability in interviews?

A

Should avoid learning or ambitious questions and ensure interviewers are trained.

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15
Q

How do you improve reliability in observations?

A

Behavioural categories should be properly operationalised, more training may be needed.

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16
Q

How do you improve reliability in experiments?

A

Standardised procedures to ensure consistency when testing participants.

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17
Q

What is validity?

A

A measure of truth. Whether a test, scale etc produces a legitimate result which represents behaviour in the real world.

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18
Q

What is internal and external validity?

A

Whether something measures what it was designed to measure, and whether findings can be generalised.

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19
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

The extent to which findings can be generalised from one setting to another.
Mundane realism of task may affect ecological validity.

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20
Q

What is temporal validity

A

Whether findings from a study hold true over time.

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21
Q

What is face validity?

A

An assessment of validity, does the test measure what it’s supposed to on the face?

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22
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

Do results match with previously established test?

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23
Q

How do you improve validity in experimental research?

A

Use of control group. Standardised procedures. Single-blind and double-blind procedures.

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24
Q

How do you improve validity in a questionnaire

A

Use of lie scales and anonymity to reduce social desirability bias.

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25
How do you improve validity in observations?
Use covert observations so behaviour is more authentic. Use well-defined categories.
26
How do you improve validity in qualitative research?
Depth and detail may increase validity but further enhanced through triangulation
27
What is a statistical test?
A test to help us determine whether we can accept or reject the null hypothesis.
28
Choosing a statistical test
1. Difference or correlation 2. Experimental design - related or unrelated. (repeated measures or matched pairs, independent groups) 3. Level of measurement (nominal data - categories)(ordinal data - ranks)(interval data - numbers/scale)
29
What is a null hypothesis?
States no difference between the conditions. Statistical tests determine whether this should be accepted or rejected.
30
What is the level of significance?
The point at which the researcher can accept the alternative hypothesis
31
What is nominal data
Categories
32
What is ordinal data
Rank order (scale of 1-10)
33
What is interval data
Numerical and public scales of measurements (length or temperature)
34
What is a type I error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis. Most likely when the significance level is too lenient
35
What is a type II error
The incorrect acceptance of a false null hypothesis. Most likely if the significant level is too stringent.
36
What is the abstract
A short summary of the key elements of a report
37
What is the introduction
Literature review, including aim and hypothesis
38
What is the method
Includes design, sample, apparatus/material, procedure, ethics
39
What are the results
Descriptive and inferential statistics. Raw data in appendix
40
What is the discussion
Analysis of results, links to previous research, limitations and wider implications
41
How do you reference
Author, date, title, volume/page number/publisher/source.
42
What is a paradigm?
A standard set of ideas
43
What is a paradigm and a paradigm shift?
A scientific set of assumptions. A paradigm shift occurs when there is a scientific revolution
44
How do you construct a theory?
Gather evidence from direct observation.
45
What is falsifiability
Scientific theories must hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proved false.
46
How do scientists minimise bias?
Use objectivity and empirical methods to gather evidence through direct observation and experience.
47
What are the aims of a study?
The purpose of the investigation
48
What is a directional hypothesis
Aims to predict the relationship between two variables in a study
49
What is a non-directional hypothesis
A hypothesis that doesn’t specify the type of change in the study. Depends on previous research.
50
What is the independent variable
The manipulated variable Changes
51
What is the dependant variable
Measured
52
What is an operationalised variable
A defined variable that can be measured
53
What is an extraneous variable
Nuisance variables but randomly distributed
54
What is a confounding variable
Varying systematically with IV.
55
What are demand characteristics
Participants guess the aims of the study and change their behaviour
56
What are investigator effects
Influence of researcher on DV/design decisions
57
What is randomisation
Chance methods to reduce researcher’s bias
58
What is standardisation
Ensuring all participants have the same experience
59
What is an independent group design
Participants in each condition of the experiment are different
60
What is a retreated measures design
All participants take part in all conditions
61
What is a matched pairs design
Similar participants paired on participant variables, allocated to condition A or B.
62
Evaluation for independent groups
Participants variable not controlled. Less economical. No order effects
63
Repeated measures design evaluation
Order effects. Demand characteristics. Participant variables controlled. More economical
64
Matched pairs design evaluation
No order effects. Cannot match participants exactly. Time consuming
65
What is a lab experiment
IV is manipulated in a controlled setting. Participants go to researcher
66
What is a field experiment
IV is manipulated in a natural setting. Researcher goes to participants
67
What is a natural experiment
IV changes naturally. DV/Setting may be natural or in a lab
68
What is a Quasi experiment
IV based on an existing difference between people Effect on DV is recorded
69
Lab experiment evaluation
High internal validity. Replication more possible. Low external validity, low internal validity
70
Field experiments evaluation
Higher external validity. Lower internal validity and ethical issues
71
Natural experiments evaluation
Only option for practical/ethical reasons, high external validity. Limited opportunities. No random allocation. Low realism in lab. No manipulation of IV.
72
Quasi experiment evaluation
If in a lab, generalisation and mundane realism low. No random allocation. No manipulation of IV for cause and effect.
73
Random sample
Equal chance of selection. Lottery
74
Systematic sample
Selecting every nth person from list .
75
Stratified sample
Sample reflects proportion of people in population strata
76
Opportunity sample
Choosing whoever is available
77
Volunteer sample
Participants self select through an advert etc.
78
Random sample evaluation
Potentially unbiased. Control CV/EV. Time consuming and may not work
79
Systematic sample evaluation
Objective method but time consuming. Those selected may refuse
80
Stratified sample evaluation
Representative. Cannot account for all subgroups
81
Opportunity sample evaluation
Convenient. Unrepresentative
82
Volunteer sample evaluation
Easy and participants engaged. Volunteer bias, responsive to cues.
83
What is informed consent
Advise participants what is involved. Reveals research aims
84
What is deception
Misleading participants/withholding information. Ok if not distressing
85
What is protection from harm
Psychological/physical risk should be ‘normal’
86
What is privacy and confidentiality
Right to control and protect personal data
87
How do you deal with informed consent?
Signed consent form. Presumptive, prior general, retrospective
88
How do you deal with deception / protection from harms
Debriefing, right to withdraw/withhold data, counselling
89
How to deal with privacy and confidentiality
Use numbers not names. Data not shared with other researchers
90
What is a pilot study?
Check procedures and techniques, make changes
91
What is a single blind
Participants aren’t aware of aims/conditions until the end
92
What is double blind
Neither participants nor individual conducting research know the aim/condition
93
What is a naturalistic observation
Behaviour served where it would normally occur No control over variables
94
What is a controlled observation
Some control over environment Manipulation of variables
95
What is a covert observation
Observing without the participants knowledge
96
What is an overt observation
Observing with participants knowledge
97
What is a participant observation
The researcher joins the group to observe their behaviour
98
What is a non-participant observation
The researcher remains an outside and observes from outside the group
99
Evaluation for observations
Capture what people do. Observer bias and no casual relationships shown.
100
Naturalistic observations evaluations
Low internal validity as control is difficult High external validity, replication of everyday life
101
Controlled observations evaluation
High internal validity - extraneous variables controlled Low external validity if overt
102
Covert and overt observation evaluations
Covert - low demand characteristics but ethically questionable Overt - behaviour may be affected
103
Participant and non participant observation evaluation
Participant - increased external validity but may lose objectivity. Non-participant - more objectivity (increased internal validity), less insight.
104
What are the ways of recording data
Record everything (unstructured) or categories (structured)
105
What are behavioural categories
Target behaviours broken down into observable components
106
What are sampling methods ?
Event sampling Time sampling
107
Evaluation of structures versus unstructured data recording
Structured - numerical, easier to analyse Unstructured - may be eye-catching information, qualitative data harder to analyse. Observer bias.
108
Evaluation of behavioural categories
Must be observable. Avoid dustbin category. No overlap
109
Evaluation of sampling methods
Event - useful for infrequent behaviour. Misses complexity Time - less effort but not representative of whole behaviour
110
What is a questionnaire
Pre-set list. Used to measure DV in experiments
111
Questionnaires evaluation
Distribute to many people. Fixed choice. Easy to analyse. Social desirability response bias.
112
What is a structured interview
Pre-set questions. Fixed order. Face to face.
113
What is an unstructured interview
No formula. Just general topic. Questions based on responses
114
What is a semi-structured interview
Some pre-set questions with follow ups.
115
Structured interview evaluation
Easy to replicate. Interviewer can’t elaborate/explain
116
Unstructured interview evaluation
Flexible. Increased interviewer bias. Analysis more difficult, social desirability bias reduced by rapport.
117
What are the types of correlation
Positive, negative and zero
118
What is the difference between correlations and experiments
No manipulation of variables. No cause and effect
119
What are the strengths of correlation
Useful starting point. Quick and economical, using secondary data.
120
What are the limitations of correlation
Can’t demonstrate cause and effect. Intervening variables. May be misinterpreted;
121
What is qualitative data
Written, non-numerical description of participants thoughts, feelings etc
122
What is quantitative data
Expressed numerically rather than words
123
What is primary data
Collected firsthand for purpose of investigation
124
What is secondary data
Collected by someone other than the researcher
125
What is a histogram
Continuous data rather than discrete, so no space between bars. True zero.
126
What is the mean
Add up, divide by Sumer
127
What are the steps in a sign test
1. Convert to nominal data 2. Add up pluses, add up minuses. 3. S =less frequent sign 4. Compare calculated value of s with critical value. If s is less than the critical value the difference is significant.
128
What are the aims of peer review?
To allocate funding To validate quality of research To suggest amendments/improvements

Psychology (11 decks)

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