Research Methods Flashcards
What is hindsight bias?
Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
How does overconfidence affect our beliefs and judgments?
Overconfidence makes us more confident than correct and leads us to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
What are the key elements of the scientific method?
Curiosity, skepticism, humility
What does a theory do in scientific research?
It explains using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
What is a hypothesis?
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
What is an operational definition?
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
Which methods are considered descriptive in research?
Case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys/interviews
What does correlational research involve?
Research that associates different factors or variables
What are the strengths and weaknesses of case studies?
Strengths: allow for examination of rare or unusual behavior, provide qualitative data, suggest directions for future studies. Weaknesses: atypical cases can be misleading, cannot generalize, cannot determine cause and effect
What does naturalistic observation involve?
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling the situation
What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation?
Strengths: subjects behave normally, data collection does not disturb subjects. Weaknesses: atypical cases can be misleading, cannot isolate independent variables, cannot determine cause and effect, observations could be subjective
What is a case study in research?
An intensive examination of unusual people or organizations
What does a survey involve in research?
Self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually through questioning a random sample
What are the strengths and weaknesses of surveys/interviews?
Strengths: provide a quick overview of beliefs, include many cases. Weaknesses: response bias, wording can skew outcomes, random samples are difficult, cannot determine cause and effect
What are experimental methods in research?
Methods where researchers manipulate variables to discover their effects
What is correlation in research?
A measure of how two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other
What is a positive correlation?
As one variable increases, the other increases
What is a negative correlation?
As one variable increases, the other decreases
What is the correlation coefficient?
A numerical value indicating the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1
What is a scatterplot?
A graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables
What is regression to the mean?
The tendency of extreme scores on a variable to be followed by less extreme scores
What is random assignment in research?
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences
What is the placebo effect?
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; effects caused by assuming an inert substance is an active agent
What is a confounding variable in an experiment?
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
What is experimental validity?
The extent to which an experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
What are creative steps in research?
Designing studies, measuring target behaviors, and interpreting results
What do specific findings help with?
They provide principles that explain everyday behaviors (e.g., detecting a faint red light to explain plane visibility at night)
What do theoretical principles test?
They are tested by intentionally creating controlled, artificial environments in the lab (e.g., light visibility experiments)
Why is animal research important?
Animals are fascinating to study and help us understand human behavior; animals have simpler systems
What are ethical considerations in research?
Informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, protection from harm, right to withdraw
What is descriptive statistics?
Numerical data used to describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation
What are the measures of central tendency?
Mean, median, mode
What is a skewed distribution?
When results are not symmetrical and favor one side over the other
What does a right skew indicate?
Mean > median
What does a left skew indicate?
Mean < median
What is standard deviation?
A measure of how much scores vary around the mean; calculated by finding the mean, subtracting it from each data point, squaring the differences, finding the mean of squared differences, and taking the square root
What is a normal curve?
The symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
What are the percentages associated with the normal curve?
1 standard deviation: 68%, 2 standard deviations: 95%, 3 standard deviations: 99%
What is inferential statistics?
Numerical data that allows us to generalize from a sample to the population and infer probabilities
What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?
Descriptive statistics: describe data using central tendency. Inferential statistics: try to infer causation and predict trends based on sample data
What does statistical significance measure?
The likelihood that an obtained result occurred by chance
