Learning Flashcards
What is learning?
Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
What are the ways to learn?
- Classical conditioning - Operant conditioning - Observational learning - Cognitive learning
What is associative learning?
Associative learning is the process of learning that certain events occur together, which may involve two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning)
What is positive association in learning?
Positive association in learning is when positive events are connected when they occur in sequence
What is negative association in learning?
Negative association in learning is when negative events are connected when they occur in sequence
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is strengthened by a reinforcer or diminished by a punisher
What is habituation?
Habituation is the process when repeated stimulation produces waning responsiveness
What is sensory adaptation?
Sensory adaptation is the perceived weakening of a sensation due to prolonged exposure to the stimulus
What is a stimulus?
A stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response
What is a response?
A response is any behavior of a living organism that results from an external or internal stimulus
What is respondent behavior?
Respondent behavior is behavior that occurs automatically in response to some stimulus
What are operant behaviors?
Operant behaviors are behaviors that operate on the environment, producing consequences
What is the behaviorism view of learning?
Behaviorism believes learning should focus on how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments and should be an objective science based on observable behavior
Who was Ivan Pavlov?
Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, believing the basic laws of learning apply to all animals
What was Pavlov’s experiment?
Pavlov’s experiment involved making a dog associate the sound of a ringing bell with food, making the dog salivate at the bell’s sound
What are the components of classical conditioning?
The components of classical conditioning include unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response in classical conditioning
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
An unconditioned response is a natural, unlearned reaction (like salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (like food)
What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?
A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not elicit a response before conditioning
What is a conditioning trial?
A conditioning trial is a training episode where a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented with (or without) an unconditioned stimulus (US)
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
A conditioned response is a learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus that has become conditioned through learning
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that triggers a response only after learning has taken place
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus is linked to an unconditioned stimulus, triggering the conditioned response
What is higher-order conditioning (second-order)?
Higher-order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
Extinction is the diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus
What is spontaneous recovery?
Spontaneous recovery is the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
What is generalization in classical conditioning?
Generalization is when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus elicit similar responses after a response has been conditioned
What is discrimination in classical conditioning?
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
What was the Little Albert experiment?
The Little Albert experiment, conducted by Watson and Rayner, conditioned a fear response in an infant by pairing a white rat with a loud noise
Who was B. F. Skinner?
B. F. Skinner was a behaviorism’s influential figure who expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect, focusing on reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning
What is the law of effect?
The law of effect, proposed by Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, while those followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
What was Thorndike’s experiment?
Thorndike’s experiment involved placing hungry cats in puzzle boxes where they learned to escape by trial and error, pulling levers to open doors
What is the Skinner box (operant chamber)?
The Skinner box is an apparatus used in operant conditioning experiments where organisms press a bar or key to release food or water
What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?
In operant conditioning, reinforcement is any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
What is shaping (reward by successive approximations)?
Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior
What is a discriminative stimulus?
A discriminative stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response after being associated with reinforcement, such as teaching a pigeon to peck a red dot but not a green dot
What is positive reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers, such as getting a bonus for arriving at work early
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement increases the strength of a response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus, like taking aspirin for a headache
What are primary reinforcers?
Primary reinforcers are innately reinforcing stimuli, such as those that satisfy biological needs like food or water
What are conditioned (secondary) reinforcers?
Conditioned reinforcers are stimuli that gain reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers, like good grades or money
What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
A continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired response every time it occurs but is more susceptible to extinction
What is a partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule?
A partial reinforcement schedule reinforces a response only part of the time and is more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement
What are the types of partial reinforcement schedules?
The types of partial reinforcement schedules include fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval
What is a fixed ratio schedule?
A fixed ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a set number of responses, like getting a free coffee after 10 purchases
What is a variable ratio schedule?
A variable ratio schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses, like the payoff from a slot machine
What is a fixed interval schedule?
A fixed interval schedule provides reinforcement after a set length of time, such as mail arriving at 2pm daily
What is a variable interval schedule?
A variable interval schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable length of time, such as checking a phone for a text message
What is punishment?
Punishment is an event that decreases the behavior it follows, either by adding an aversive stimulus or removing a pleasant one
What is positive punishment?
Positive punishment involves the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior’s recurrence, such as spraying water on a barking dog
What is negative punishment?
Negative punishment involves the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior’s recurrence, like taking away a teen’s driver’s license
What are the drawbacks of physical punishment?
Physical punishment suppresses behavior temporarily, teaches discrimination, induces fear, and may increase aggression
What was the Skinner controversy?
Some believed Skinner’s approach dehumanized people by neglecting personal freedom, but Skinner argued that reinforcement is more humane than punishment
What are the biopsychosocial influences on learning?
Biological influences include genetic predispositions, unconditioned responses, and adaptive responses; psychological influences include experiences and associations; social-cultural influences involve culturally learned preferences
What did John Garcia and Robert Koelling research?
Garcia and Koelling researched taste aversion and demonstrated that rats developed a conditioned taste aversion when exposed to a novel substance followed by nausea
What is taste aversion?
Taste aversion is a type of classical conditioning where a previously desirable or neutral food is perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation
What is incentive drift?
Incentive drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response
What are cognitive influences on classical conditioning?
Cognitive influences, such as expectations, were underestimated by Pavlov and Watson in their classical conditioning models
What did Rescorla and Wagner theorize?
Rescorla and Wagner theorized that classical conditioning occurs when an animal develops an expectation that a conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus
What is a cognitive map?
A cognitive map is a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
What is latent learning?
Latent learning is learning that occurs but is not immediately apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
What was Tolman and Honzik’s experiment?
Tolman and Honzik studied latent learning in rats with mazes, showing that rats developed a cognitive map and found the reward faster when it was introduced
What is insight learning?
Insight learning is a form of problem-solving where an organism suddenly understands the solution to a problem
What is extrinsic motivation?
Extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid punishment
What is intrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, without external rewards
What is the overjustification effect?
The overjustification effect occurs when external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation, making activities seem controlled by external forces
What are the biological influences on classical conditioning?
Biological influences limit what stimuli and responses can easily be associated in classical conditioning
What are the biological influences on operant conditioning?
Organisms are more likely to learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors, while unnatural behaviors tend to revert to instinctual patterns
What are the cognitive influences on operant conditioning?
Organisms develop expectations that responses will be reinforced or punished and exhibit latent learning without reinforcement
What is problem-focused coping?
Problem-focused coping is an approach to alleviate stress by changing the stressor or how one interacts with it
What is emotion-focused coping?
Emotion-focused coping is an approach to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and addressing emotional needs
What is personal control?
Personal control is our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless
What is learned helplessness?
Learned helplessness is the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
What are Julian Rotter’s loci of control?
Rotter’s loci of control include external locus of control (believing outside forces determine fate) and internal locus of control (believing we control our own fate)
What is self-control?
Self-control is the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
What is observational learning?
Observational learning is the process of learning by observing others, also known as social learning
What is modeling?
Modeling is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Who was Albert Bandura?
Albert Bandura was a pioneer in observational learning who demonstrated that people learn from the mistakes and successes of others
What was the Bobo doll experiment?
The Bobo doll experiment involved children observing adults acting aggressively with an inflatable doll, leading the children to mimic the aggressive behavior
What is vicarious reinforcement and punishment?
Vicarious reinforcement and punishment occur when learning is influenced by watching someone else react to a stimulus
What are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons are neurons in the frontal lobe that fire when performing certain actions or observing others doing so, enabling imitation and empathy
What is prosocial modeling?
Prosocial modeling is the process of promoting positive, constructive, and helpful behavior by demonstrating it
What is antisocial modeling?
Antisocial modeling is the process by which observational learning may have negative effects, such as abusive parents having aggressive children
What is the violence-viewing effect?
The violence-viewing effect refers to the increased aggression and reduced prosocial behavior seen after viewing violent media
What is desensitization?
Desensitization is the tendency to show weaker emotional responses to emotional stimuli over time due to repeated exposure
