research methods

Question 1

what is an independent and dependent variable?

Answer 1

independent variable is the variable directly manipulated by rhe researcher in ordee to examine its effects

while the dependent variable is the variable being measured by the researcher

Question 2

what is operationalisation?

Answer 2

making the variavle in an investigation detailed and specfic

Question 3

What is an extraneous variable and give a few types of extraneous variables

Answer 3

it is a variable not controlled, which could affect the results of the study

1)confouding variable
an extraneous variable that affects the result of the study so that the effect of the IV is not truly seen

2) situational variable
an extraneous variable present in the environment of the study

3) participant variable
an extraneous variable specific to trye participants of the investigation, such as their mood abilities or personality

Question 4

Way in which the study conducted can introduce situational variables

Answer 4

1) order effects when a participant improve or worsen in the second condition because they have practised or become fatigued

2) demand characteristics when the participants alter their behaviour in response to the perceived aims of the investigation

3) investigator effects is when a researcher unintentionally gives clues to a participant altering their behaviour

Question 5

Ways in which to control situational variables

Answer 5

using standardised procedures, where the procedure of a stufy is the same across all conditions.

Question 6

How to prevent order effectd

Answer 6

1. counterbalancing which involves half of the participants experiencing the first condition and then the second condition, while the otjer half experience the second condition then the first condition. this way order effects are equally distributed in both conditions to cancel eachother out

2) randomisation, where each participant is assigned to the first or second condition as amatter of chance,

Question 7

ways in which to control demand chsracteristics

Answer 7

1) single blind technique where information of the sstudy is withheld or nto told to the participants

2) double blind technique is where the aim of the study is withheld from both participant and researcher,,

Question 8

ways in which to control participant variable

Answer 8

through random allocation, where participants are randomly assigned to a conditioj of the study, designed to precent only a certain type of person being in one condition of the study

Question 9

what is a null hypothesis

Answer 9

a prediction fhat the result will fail to show any difference that is consistent or systematic such as

there will be no differencd in the numver or digits recalled whether participants listened to classical music or jazz, any difference is die to chance

Question 10

what is an alternative/experimental hypothesis

Answer 10

a prediction of the outcome of a study baded on what is expected to happen, can either be directional or non directional

directional hypothesis is a hypothesis thst predicts the direction the resultd will go on

non directional hypothesis is a hypothesis that predicts that a difference/relationship will be found bit does not specify what the difference/relationship will be

Question 11

what is an experimental hypothesis

Answer 11

the name given to a hypothesis when used in a field and labratory experiments

Question 12

what is an experimental hypothesis

Answer 12

the name given to a hypothesis when used in a field and labratory experiments

Question 13

What is a target population

Answer 13

the group of ppl beinng investigated in a study

Question 14

what is generalisability

Answer 14

the extent to which the result of a study represent the whole population

Question 15

what is a sample

Answer 15

a selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation

Question 16

what is a sampling method and give several rypes of sampling method

Answer 16

a technique used to gather a representative group if people as a sample from the target population

1) random sampling technique
2) startified sampling technique
3) volunteer sampling technique
4) opportunity sampling technique

Question 17

in depth what is random sampling technique, strength snd weaknesses

Answer 17

a technique used to gather a random sample of participants from the target population

strength
- each member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
weakness
- however some may refuse to participant as they havd the rights to do so, which can lead to a less representstive sample

Question 18

stratified sampling technique in detail

Answer 18

s tec a technique that ensures sub groups of the target population are proportionally represented in a sample

strength
wnsires that the sample is completely representstive as a cross section of a target population

weakness
time consuming and suffers from
the same weakness as random sampling. that ppl can refuse to tale part leading to sample error

Question 19

what is a sampling error

Answer 19

when a sample differs in qualities from the target population it intends to represent

Question 20

volunteer sampling technique in detail

Answer 20

a technique that asks for participants by placing an advert for volunteers

stengths
involvss minimal effort on hte part of resesrchers in identifying and selecting a sample.
most ethical sampling method because participants do not need to be ssked directly this avoiding placing pressure on tp participate

weakness
not everyone coild see the advert leading go biased sample as volunteers tend to ve a particular type of presonality or have the inclination to participate leading to unreliable findings

Question 21

opporunity sampling twchnique in detail

Answer 21

recruits participants who are readily available at the time
, makes use of people who happe to be around the time of the research
rhis can be done with or withoutt their agreement

strengths
quickest and somplest sampling

weakness
can lead to bissed sample becUse not every memebee of the target population may be around at the time of the study
so not really feneralisable to the target population
findings can ve unreliable as if done in different times in a week they may differ

Question 22

what is a research design and experimental design?

Answer 22

research design
how participants are allocated to the conditoons of the study

experimental design
the name fiven to the research design when used in an experiment

Question 23

types of research and experimental designs

Answer 23

independent measures design
involves splitting participants into groips with each tested in only one condition of the study

repeated measures design
the same participants are used in all conditions of a study

matched pairs design
different participants are usee in each conditoon of the study but are matched for likeness on important characteristics

Question 24

what are strengths and weaknesses of independent measures design

Answer 24

str
there are no order effects as participants take part in one condition of the

wk
more participants required
maybe be individual differeneces between teh groups

controlling problems
participants can be randomly allocated to each condition

Question 25

repeated measures design str and wk

Answer 25

str
fewer participants rwquired making it more economical
no individual differences between conditions of the study

wk
demand characteristics are more likelt as participants are more able to guess aim
order effects mean that results may reflect practice or fatigue

controlling problems
order effects need to be controlled using counterbalancing or randomisation

Question 26

matched pairs design str and weaknesses

Answer 26

str
fair comparisons can be made between the groups as they are equally matched

wk
it is time consuming to match participants and not all characterstics can be equally matched

Question 27

what is reliability

Answer 27

refers to the consistency of an outcome or result of an investigation
means that the same result is found again and again

Question 28

describe relability in sampling methods

Answer 28

if a sampling method or technique leads to a biased sample, then the ourcome of the research may not be relied upon to occur again, as it could differ if the study was relicated

Question 29

reliability in experimental designs

Answer 29

in an independent measures design, participants differ between conditions, so there is variability between groups because participant variables. this can lead to unreliable findings

Question 30

descfibe validity

Answer 30

the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure.

validity can be split up into internal and external validity

Question 31

what does internal and external validity mean

Answer 31

internal validity whether the measures used in a test geniunely test what they were designed to test
external validity (ecological validity) describes whether the findings are generalisable to the target population

Question 32

describe vailidiry in sampling methods

Answer 32

• if a sample error occurs then rhe findings of the research are untrue of the target population. this affects the external validity of the results

Question 33

describe validity in experimental designs

Answer 33

way in which participants are allocated to a consitoon can affect the validity of the findingsZ

Question 34

describfe qualitative methods

Answer 34

ways of conducting research that find out new information rather than testing a prediction, often resulting in qualitative data

Question 35

describe quantitative methods

Answer 35

ways of conducting a research that test a prediction and gather quantitative data

Question 36

what is triangulation

Answer 36

when more than one measure is taken for a behaviour to cross validate the findings

Question 37

what is researcher bias

Answer 37

when a researcher interprets the outcome of a study according to their own view(subjective)

Question 38

what is ethical issues

Answer 38

researcherrs follow codes or rules of conduct when carrying out research to protect participants from harm

Question 39

what is the right to withdraw

Answer 39

ensuring that participants are clearly aware of their rigjt to leave thenstudy at any point

Question 40

What is the BPS??

Answer 40

British Psychological Society produced a guideline to help psychologists identify consider and deal with ethical issues through series of ethical guidelines

Question 41

what ate the four main principles of the BPS

Answer 41

1) Respect for the autonomy, privacy and dignity of individuals and communities
2) Scientific integrity
3) Social Responsibiliry
4) Maximising benefts and minimising harm

Question 42

What is deception and how to stop it

Answer 42

deception involves misleading ofr lyong to the parricipants of the true nature of the investigstion. violating the participants ability to givd informed concent

to prevent this, debriefed can be used to disclose information as soon as the study finishes and discloses the outcome of the study

Question 43

What are some rights participantd have

Answer 43

Confidentiality, Informed Consent, Right to withdraw and protection of participants from psychological harm

Question 44

describe the three experiments in short

Answer 44

labratory experiment
a procedure staged in an artificial environment

field experiment
a procedure staged in a naturalistic environment
manipulated

natural experiment
a study that examines a naturally occuring variable in a real life situation
not manipulated

Question 45

describe labratory experiment, pros and cons

Answer 45

labratory experiment takes place in a controlled environment, where the labratory has an IV and DV,
tries to controlling and eliminating all other extraneous variables

pros
most scientific due to high levels of control
cause and effect can be established between IV and DV

cons
conducted in an unnatural environment
participants are invited to the experiment so may display demand characteristic
reductionist as it isolated only the variables under consideration, ignoring other variables thet could also be involved

Question 46

describe field experiments and their pros and cons

Answer 46

an experiment conducted in a natural environment, but theere is still an IV that is manipulated by the researcher and a DV measured
Some control in variables but more unpredicablr due to naturalistic setting
participants may or may not be aware of taking part in researcher

pros
-conducted in a naturalistic environment so behaviour is natural

pros
-there is cause and effect vetween UV and DV so some extranous variables can be controlled

cons
- not all extraneous variablee fancbe controlled as it is real life
-can be unethical as participants may be unaware of takiny part so researchers may not have gained informed consent

Question 47

natural experiment description and pros cons

Answer 47

occurs in a real life environment and has an IV and Dv but the researchers so nto manipulate the IV, it occurs naturally
Generally opportunistic means they make use of unique and naturally occuring siutations that would otherwise ve difficult or unethical

pros
naturally occuringn and not manipulayed
real and naturalistic

cons
not possible to ransomly allocate participants to consitions of rhe IB, so there may be issues with participant variables that can influence findings
extraneous variables are difficult to control

Question 48

describe interview

Answer 48

a researcher method designed to gather self reported information from participants
a non experimental method as it does not manipulate an IV directly

1. Structured interview
2. Semi Structured interview
3. Unstructured interview

Question 49

describe structured interview

Answer 49

a standardised list of pre-set questions asked to a respondent,
suitable for lwrge scale studies whete a number of interviews are required to get information from alot of respondents

Question 50

describe semi structures interview

Answer 50

has a mix of preset and unprepared questions to ask to a respondent allowing for some free flowing conversation to occur allowing the intervirerto explore the respondents thoughts and beliefs when opporunitiescarise throughout the interview

Question 51

describe unstructed interview

Answer 51

a free flowing conversation around a particular topic with a respondent.
althought interviewers have a broad aim they generally have a conversation with respondents that csn go in all sorts of directions

Question 52

describe strength and weakness of interviews

Answer 52

suffer from social desirability biad where respondents andwer in a way that they feel is more socially acceptable

1. structured interviews are able to gather alot ot info from alot of people relatively quick, easy to replicate.
   however they can inly access superficial information from respondents and do not allow respondents to answer freely
2. semi structuredallowing respondents to answer their own way, interviewers csn deviste from the intervire to an interesting avenue they can rxplore
   however this is more time consuming and requires interwiers to have more training on how to conduct an interview

3) unstrucutred interviews gsther the most indepth information, allowing interviewers to freely explore the beliefs and attitiudes of respondents.
however interviewers need to ge welltrained and takes time to build a rapport with respondents.
impossible to replicate as not all respondents are the same

Question 53

Describe Questionnares

Answer 53

a self report technique designed to ask lots of people questions about a topic

they can he either closed ended questions(qs with a fixed response to choose from) or open ended questions(qs with no fixed response)

Question 54

strength and weakness of questionaires

Answer 54

pros
inexpensive way of gathering information from a large sample
ethical because people can quite easily choose to not complete them
respondents are not affected by the pressnce if an interviewer so are more likely to andwer honest reducing social desirability effect
closed ended questions produce quantitative daya which is easy to analyse and object
open wnded question produce qualitative data which is open too interpretation ans offer more freedom than quantitative

cons
response rate of qs is relatively low as people may not be inclined or have time to do them
closed ended questions may cause participants to feel that the rigjt option is not available or thst they would like to explain their choices
open ended questions are hard to analyze as they produce qualitative data

Question 55

describe correlation

Answer 55

a way of analysing relationships between variables

a positive correlextion is where as one co variable increases the other increases

a negative correlation is where as one co variable increases the other decreases

Question 56

pros and cons of correlations

Answer 56

pros
useful for examining relationships between many variables as they are cheaper and take less time than experimental research
useful in researching a topix that would be difficult to study experimentsllyvfor ethical reasons
less interfentionist so more likely to be ehical

cons
cause and effect cannot be establushed, we csnnot say that ine variable causes another to occur as it could be the other way around, or a third variable het to be studied could give an external influence

Question 57

case study describe

Answer 57

an indepth investigstion into one person or a group of people typically involves using a range of research methods, suitable for the study of unique or rare individuals in circumstances a psychologist could not have staged for ehtical and practical reasons

Question 58

pros and cons of case study

Answer 58

useful in situations that would be unethical to set up experimentally and provides the most in depth information about ap articular individual
can stimulate research inti new areas of psychology that would not have been found unless rare individuas were studied

cons
csnnot be repeated to check reliability of the findings as every individual iz different
may not be applicatble/generalisable to others for the same reason
researchers may be intensely involved in gathering data they may lose their obiectivity and interpret the findingd differently kniwn as researcher vias, can be avoided through triangulation

Question 59

describe observation

Answer 59

a research merhid designed to simply observe and watch what people do

1. naturalistic observation
   conducted in an everyday environment where behaviour can ve studied and seen
2. controlled/structured obsercation
   conducted un labratory orncontrolled environment
3. overt observation
   conducted with participants knowledge they are being watched
4. covert observation
   conducted without the participants awarenthat they are being watched
5. participant observation
   when observer is involved in the group they are observing
6. non participant observation
   when ovserver watches and records without being actively involved

Question 60

str and wk of observation

Answer 60

pros

cons
xan be unreliable if certain measures are nor in place. can be that oveervers did not detect behaviours.
each coded behaviour needs to be clearly operationalised and the observer mist be well rrained in how to conduct an observation in ordee to correctly record coded behaviours

can lack validity if the coded behaviours are not a good measure of the concept being tested or due to observer bias more likely in a participant observstion ss observer becomed involved in the group being stuxied and lose objectivity

ethical issues due to covert observations which can raise the issue of a lack of consent, participants covert observstion could raise ethical concerns becuase researchsr who may be acting a sa group member deceives the participants