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Psychology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is the purpose of research?

A

-Understanding why something happens
-Finding how prominent an issue is (how much it is happening),
-Finding out more,
-Making change-
E.g. Policies, Procedures, Diagnosis.

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2
Q

What is a lab experiment?

A

Takes place in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory.

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3
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

The experiment is conducted in the field which is often outside of a controlled environment.

The field: a place relevant to the study.
For example- a study on teaching methods might be carried out in a classroom/school.

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4
Q

What is a natural experiment?

A

When a phenomena occurs naturally, providing the opportunity for researchers to find out more about something they would not ordinarily have access to study.

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5
Q

What is a quasi experiment?

A

An experiment where groups of participants are naturally assigned.
For example, in a study on the effects of caffeine in humans under 20 in comparison to those over 20, participants would be naturally assigned to groups by age.
This differs to the bobo doll study, where children were randomly assigned to their group.

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6
Q

What is the independent variable in a study?

A

Changes

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7
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

what being is measured

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8
Q

Name a benefit to a natural experiment

A

-Take place in the real world and so have high ecological validity.

-Participants might not know they are being studied or what for, lower chance of demand characteristics.

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9
Q

Name a benefit to a lab experiment

A

-Has high internal validity- having a controlled environment reduces the risk of extraneous variables.

-Easy to replicate, and therefore hold high reliability.

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10
Q

Name a benefit to a field experiment

A

-Take place in the real world and so have high ecological validity.

-Participants might not know they are being studied or what for, lower chance of demand characteristics.

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11
Q

Name a benefit to a quasi experiment

A

-Easier to generalise than randomised groups,

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12
Q

Name an issue to a natural experiment

A

-Hard to control, so have higher risk of extraneous variables,

-Rarely occur and so are often impossible to replicate and so results can be unreliable.

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13
Q

Name an issue to a quasi experiment

A

-No cause and effect as randomisation is not possible.

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14
Q

Name an issue to a field experiment

A

-Hard to control, so have higher risk of extraneous variables,

-Harder to replicate and so results can be unreliable.

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15
Q

Name an issue to a lab experiment

A

-Can be prone to demand characteristics, and researcher bias,
-Do not hold ecological validity as a controlled environment does not often reflect real life.

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16
Q

What are extraneous variables?

A

Something unexpected that impacts the results of a study.

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17
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Participants know that they are involved in a study and change accordingly , meaning the results are not a true representation.

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18
Q

What is internal validity?

A

The higher confidence there is that no extraneous variables have had an affect, the higher the internal validity.

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19
Q

What is the expectancy effect?

A

The participant tries to give the ‘right’ answer to help the researcher.

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20
Q

What is the social desirability effect ?

A

The participant tries to give an answer that makes them look good.

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21
Q

What is researcher bias ?

A

The researcher knows the hypothesis/research question and unintentionally skews results.

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22
Q

What is the screw you effect?

A

The participant tries to give the ‘wrong’ answer, or destroy the progress of the study.

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23
Q

What is ecological validity?

A

How much the environment of the study reflects real life. A study can have high or low ecological validity.

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24
Q

What are the 4 key evaluation points in research?

A

-validity
-causation
-controls
-reliability

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25
Q

Independent Measures Design
Definition: What is an independent measures design?

A

Description:
* Participants are divided into different groups. Each group experiences only one condition of the independent variable (IV).
Strengths:
* No order effects since participants only experience one condition.
* Reduces demand characteristics.
Limitations:
* Requires more participants compared to other designs.
* Participant variables may affect results (individual differences between groups).

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26
Q

Repeated Measures Design
Definition: What is a repeated measures design?

A

Description:
* The same participants take part in all conditions of the independent variable (IV).
Strengths:
* Reduces participant variables as the same individuals are used.
* Fewer participants needed, making it more resource-efficient.
Limitations:
* Order effects (e.g., practice or fatigue) can influence results.
* Demand characteristics are more likely, as participants experience all conditions.

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27
Q

Matched Pairs Design
Definition: What is a matched pairs design?

A

Description:
* Participants are paired based on similar characteristics (e.g., age, gender, IQ) relevant to the study. Each pair is split between conditions.
Strengths:
* Reduces participant variables compared to independent measures.
* Avoids order effects since participants only experience one condition.
Limitations:
* Matching participants is time-consuming and challenging.
* Impossible to perfectly match participants, leaving room for variability.

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28
Q

Counterbalancing
Definition: How does counterbalancing address order effects in repeated measures designs?

A

Description:
* Counterbalancing involves splitting participants into two groups.
* One group experiences condition A first, then condition B.
* The second group experiences condition B first, then condition A.
Strengths:
* Reduces the impact of order effects by balancing them across participants.
Limitations:
* Does not eliminate order effects completely; it only spreads them evenly.

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29
Q

Order Effects
Definition: What are order effects, and how do they affect repeated measures designs?

A

Description:
* Order effects occur when the sequence of conditions affects participants’ performance.
* Includes practice effects (improved performance due to repetition) and fatigue effects (worse performance due to tiredness).
Solution:
* Counter balancing can minimise order effects.

30
Q

Participant Variables
Definition: How do participant variables affect independent measures design?

A

Description:
* Participant variables are individual differences (e.g., age, experience, motivation) that can affect performance across groups.
* They are a source of extraneous variables in independent measures designs.
Solution:
* Use random allocation to evenly distribute participant variables.

31
Q

Experimental Controls
Definition: What controls are used to improve experimental design reliability?

A

Examples:
1. Random Allocation: Distributes participants randomly to reduce bias.
2. Standardization: Ensures consistency in procedures across conditions.
3. Counterbalancing: Reduces order effects in repeated measures designs.
4. Control Group: Used to compare results and establish causation.

32
Q

Random Allocation
Definition: What is random allocation, and why is it used?

A

Description:
* Random allocation is the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions in a way that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group.
Purpose:
* Reduces participant variables in independent measures design.
* Increases internal validity by minimizing selection bias.

33
Q

Extraneous Variables
Definition: What are extraneous variables?

A

Description:
* Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable (IV) that might affect the dependent variable (DV).
Types:
* Participant variables (e.g., age, IQ).
* Situational variables (e.g., noise, time of day).
Solution:
* Controlled by random allocation, standardization, or matching.

34
Q

Confounding Variables
Definition: What are confounding variables, and how are they different from extraneous variables?

A

Description:
* A confounding variable is an extraneous variable that changes systematically with the IV, potentially influencing the DV.
Key Difference:
* Confounding variables directly affect the results, whereas extraneous variables may or may not.
Solution:
* Use control groups, random allocation, or matched designs.

35
Q

Lab Experiment
Definition: What are the features, strengths, and limitations of lab experiments?

A

Description:
* Conducted in a controlled environment where the IV is manipulated, and the DV is measured.
Strengths:
* High internal validity due to control over variables.
* Easy replication due to standardization.
Limitations:
* Low ecological validity due to artificial settings.
* Risk of demand characteristics.

36
Q

Field Experiment
Definition: What are the features, strengths, and limitations of field experiments?

A

Description:
* Conducted in a natural environment, but the IV is still manipulated.
Strengths:
* Higher ecological validity than lab experiments.
* Participants may be unaware of the experiment, reducing demand characteristics.
Limitations:
* Less control over extraneous variables.
* Ethical issues with informed consent if participants are unaware of being studied.

37
Q

Quasi-Experiment
Definition: What is a quasi-experiment?

A

Description:
* A study where the IV is not manipulated but is naturally occurring (e.g., gender, age).
Strengths:
* Allows research on variables that cannot be ethically or practically manipulated.
* High ecological validity when studying real-world phenomena.
Limitations:
* Lack of control over IV may lead to confounding variables.
* Causation cannot be firmly established.

38
Q

Natural Experiment
Definition: What is a natural experiment?

A

Description:
* An experiment where the IV changes naturally, without manipulation by the researcher.
Strengths:
* High ecological validity as it studies real-world events.
* Ethical: Investigates variables that cannot be manipulated.
Limitations:
* No control over extraneous variables.
* Cannot establish causation reliably.

39
Q

Demand Characteristics
Definition: What are demand characteristics, and how do they impact experiments?

A

Description:
* When participants guess the study’s purpose and change their behaviour to conform to expectations.
Solution:
* Use single-blind or double-blind procedures to reduce awareness of the hypothesis.

40
Q

Single-Blind vs. Double-Blind
Definition: What are single-blind and double-blind procedures?

A

Description:
* Single-Blind: Participants do not know which condition they are in, reducing demand characteristics.
* Double-Blind: Neither participants nor experimenters know who is in which condition, reducing experimenter bias and demand characteristics.
Strengths:
* Increases validity by minimizing bias.
Limitations:
* May not be feasible in all research designs.

41
Q

Control Group
Definition: What is the purpose of a control group in experiments?

A

Description:
* A control group does not receive the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable (IV).
Purpose:
* Provides a baseline for comparison to evaluate the effect of the IV.
Example:
* Testing a new drug: the control group receives a placebo while the experimental group receives the drug.

42
Q

Pilot Study
Definition: What is a pilot study, and why is it important?

A

Description:
* A small-scale preliminary study conducted before the main research.
Purpose:
* Identifies potential issues in the design, materials, or procedure.
* Ensures the experiment runs smoothly and effectively.

43
Q

Hypothesis
Definition: What is the difference between a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis?

A

Description:
* Null Hypothesis (H₀): States there is no relationship or effect (e.g., “The IV will not affect the DV”).
* Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): States there is a relationship or effect (e.g., “The IV will significantly affect the DV”).
Purpose:
* Researchers aim to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative.

44
Q

Operationalisation
Definition: What does it mean to operationalise variables?

A

Description:
* Operationalization involves defining variables in measurable terms.
Example:
* Instead of “intelligence,” use an IQ test score.
* Instead of “aggression,” count the number of aggressive behaviors in a set time.
Purpose:
* Makes abstract concepts measurable and researchable.

45
Q

Reliability
Definition: What is reliability in research?

A

Description:
* Reliability refers to the consistency of results.
Types:
* Test-Retest Reliability: Same results when repeated over time.
* Inter-Rater Reliability: Agreement between different observers.
Importance:
* Reliable results ensure replicability and trustworthiness.

46
Q

Validity
Definition: What are the different types of validity in research?

A

Types of Validity:
1. Internal Validity: Whether the IV is the sole cause of changes in the DV.
2. External Validity: The extent to which results can be generalized to other settings, populations, or times.
3. Ecological Validity: Whether findings reflect real-world behavior.
4. Construct Validity: How well the study measures what it claims to measure.
5. Face Validity: Whether the test appears to measure what it claims to measure.

47
Q

Sampling Methods
Definition: What are common sampling methods used in experiments?

A

Types of Sampling:
1. Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.
2. Opportunity Sampling: Participants are chosen based on availability.
3. Stratified Sampling: Population is divided into subgroups, and participants are selected proportionally.
4. Systematic Sampling: Every nth member of the population is selected.
Evaluation:
* Random sampling reduces bias but is time-consuming.
* Opportunity sampling is convenient but may not be representative.

48
Q

Placebo Effect
Definition: What is the placebo effect, and why is it important in research?

A

Description:
* The placebo effect occurs when participants experience changes due to their expectations rather than the actual treatment.
Solution:
* Use a placebo group in experiments to isolate the true effect of the IV.

49
Q

Ethical Considerations in Experiments
Definition: What ethical principles should researchers follow?

A

Key Ethical Principles:
1. Informed Consent: Participants must agree to take part with full knowledge of the study.
2. Debriefing: Participants are informed of the study’s true purpose afterward.
3. Confidentiality: Protect participants’ personal information.
4. Right to Withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time.
5. Protection from Harm: Researchers must minimize psychological and physical risks.

50
Q

Extraneous vs. Confounding Variables
Question: How do extraneous and confounding variables differ?

A

Extraneous Variables:
* Variables that may influence the DV but are not systematically related to the IV.
Confounding Variables:
* Variables that are systematically related to both the IV and DV, making it unclear what caused the change in the DV.
Solution:
* Control for extraneous variables and eliminate confounding variables.

51
Q

What is a naturalistic observation?

A
  • Observing behavior in its natural environment without manipulation or interference.
    Strengths:
    • High ecological validity due to real-world setting.
    • Participants behave naturally, reducing demand characteristics.
      Limitations:
    • Lack of control over extraneous variables.
    • Observer bias may influence data collection.
52
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

Observing behavior in a structured environment where some variables are controlled.
Strengths:
* Allows for control of extraneous variables.
* Easier replication due to standardized procedures.
Limitations:
* Lower ecological validity as the setting is artificial.
* Demand characteristics may influence participant behaviour.

53
Q

What is participant observation?

A

The researcher becomes part of the group being observed.
Strengths:
* Provides an insider’s perspective, offering rich, detailed data.
* May uncover behaviors that are not visible to external observers.
Limitations:
* Risk of researcher bias if they become too involved.
* Ethical issues if participants are unaware of the researcher’s role.

54
Q

What is non-participant observation?

A

The researcher observes the group without participating in their activities.
Strengths:
* Less chance of researcher bias since they remain detached.
* Participants may behave more naturally if unaware of being observed.
Limitations:
* Lack of insider perspective may lead to less detailed data.
* May still raise ethical concerns if participants are not informed.

55
Q

What is a covert observation?

A

Observing participants without their knowledge.
Strengths:
* Reduces demand characteristics and observer effects.
* Captures natural behavior.
Limitations:
* Raises significant ethical concerns about consent.
* Difficult to record data discreetly in some situations.

56
Q

What is an overt observation?

A

Observing participants with their knowledge and consent.
Strengths:
* Ethically sound, as participants are aware of being observed.
* Easier to record detailed data openly.
Limitations:
* Participants may alter their behavior due to observer effects.
* May reduce ecological validity.

57
Q

What is a structured observation?

A

Researchers use a predefined checklist or coding system to record specific behaviours.
Strengths:
* Allows for quantitative data collection, making analysis easier.
* Improves reliability due to standardized methods.
Limitations:
* May miss important behaviors not included on the checklist.
* Reduces richness and depth of qualitative data.

58
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A

Observers record all behavior without a predetermined system.
Strengths:
* Provides rich, detailed qualitative data.
* Useful for exploring new areas of study.
Limitations:
* Harder to analyze due to the volume of data.
* Lack of focus may reduce reliability.

59
Q

What is observer bias, and how can it be minimized?

A

Observer bias occurs when the researcher’s expectations influence their interpretation of the behavior being observed.
Solution:
* Use multiple observers to improve inter-rater reliability.
* Conduct blind observations where observers are unaware of the study’s aims

60
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

The degree to which different observers agree on their observations.
Importance:
* Ensures consistency and reliability in data collection.
Solution:
* Use clear operational definitions of behavior.
* Train observers to reduce variability in interpretation.

61
Q

What is time sampling in observations?

A

Observing and recording behavior at specific time intervals (e.g., every 5 minutes).
Strengths:
* Reduces the amount of data to be recorded, making it manageable.
* Can provide a representative sample of behavior.
Limitations:
* May miss behaviours occurring outside the time intervals.

62
Q

What is event sampling in observations?

A

Observing and recording every occurrence of a specific behavior.
Strengths:
* Focused on specific behaviors, providing detailed data.
* Useful for studying infrequent behaviors.
Limitations:
* Can be overwhelming if the behavior occurs frequently.
* Other important behaviors may be missed.

63
Q

What is informed consent, and why is it important?

A

Informed consent ensures participants voluntarily agree to take part in a study, knowing all relevant details about the research.
Key Elements:
* Purpose of the study.
* Procedures and duration.
* Potential risks and benefits.
* Right to withdraw at any time.
Importance:
* Protects participants’ autonomy and rights.
Limitation:
* In some cases, providing full details might affect results (e.g., deception studies).

64
Q

What is deception in research, and when is it acceptable?

A

Deception involves withholding information or providing false information to participants.
Conditions for Acceptability:
* Necessary to preserve the validity of the study.
* Does not cause harm or distress.
* Participants are debriefed afterward.
Ethical Consideration:
* Deception must be justified and approved by an ethics board.

65
Q

What is debriefing, and why is it important in research?

A

Informing participants about the study’s true purpose and methods after it is completed.
Purpose:
* Ensures participants leave without confusion or distress.
* Allows researchers to explain the necessity of any deception.
Ethical Importance:
* Reinforces trust and ensures participants are informed.

66
Q

What is confidentiality, and how is it maintained in research?

A

Protecting participants’ personal information and ensuring anonymity.
Methods to Maintain:
* Using pseudonyms or participant codes.
* Storing data securely (e.g., encrypted files).
Importance:
* Builds trust and encourages honest responses.
Limitation:
* Sometimes, legal or safety obligations (e.g., reporting abuse) may override confidentiality.

67
Q

What does the right to withdraw entail?

A

Participants can leave the study at any point without penalty or consequence.
Key Aspects:
* Must be communicated before the study begins.
* Participants can also request that their data be removed from analysis.
Ethical Significance:
* Protects autonomy and prevents coercion.

68
Q

How do researchers ensure participants are protected from harm?

A

Researchers must minimize risks of psychological, emotional, or physical harm.
Steps to Ensure Safety:
* Risk assessment prior to the study.
* Providing support resources if distress occurs (e.g., counseling).
* Stopping the study if harm becomes evident.
Example:
* In Milgram’s obedience study, participants experienced significant distress, raising ethical concerns.

69
Q

What is ethical approval, and why is it required?

A

Researchers must seek approval from an institutional ethics committee or review board before conducting a study.
Purpose:
* Ensures the study aligns with ethical guidelines.
* Protects participants and researchers from potential ethical violations.
Key Bodies:
* Institutional Review Board (IRB) or similar organizations.

70
Q

What are the ethical considerations for using animals in research?

A

Ethical Guidelines:
* Use animals only when alternatives are not available.
* Minimize pain, suffering, and stress.
* Ensure proper care and housing.
Regulation:
* Researchers must comply with laws and guidelines (e.g., APA guidelines for animal research).
Strengths:
* Provides insight into biological processes.
Limitations:
* Ethical concerns over animal rights.

71
Q

What is voluntary participation?

A

Participants must take part in the study willingly, without coercion or undue pressure.
Key Aspects:
* No financial or social pressure to participate.
* Recruitment methods must respect participants’ autonomy.
Ethical Importance:
* Prevents exploitation or manipulation of vulnerable groups.

72
Q

Why is cultural sensitivity important in research?

A

Researchers must respect cultural norms, values, and practices when conducting studies.
Key Practices:
* Tailoring procedures and questions to cultural contexts.
* Avoiding ethnocentrism in interpretation of results.
Example:
* In cross-cultural studies, researchers should use translators or culturally validated tools.

Psychology (6 decks)

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