Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Study: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Researcher(s): Jean Piaget
Aim: To describe the stages of cognitive development and how children’s thinking evolves as they mature.
Method: Observation and task-based experiments.
Participants: Children of various ages.
Procedure: Piaget observed children’s behavior and reasoning abilities, developing tasks to assess cognitive abilities at different stages of development. Examples include conservation and object permanence tasks.
Results: Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Conclusion: Cognitive development progresses in universal stages linked to biological maturation.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Pioneering theory, supported by research, cross-cultural validity, influential in education.
Limitations: Tasks were too language-dependent, criticized for age inaccuracies, primarily descriptive, not explanatory.
Theory: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Key Concepts: Sociocultural influence, MKO, ZPD, scaffolding
Overview:
Cognitive development is inseparable from a child’s social environment and culture.
Children learn through interaction with others, internalizing cultural tools via imitation, direct instruction, or collaboration.
Language: Primary medium for transmitting cultural knowledge.
Key Concepts:
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO):
Someone (peer, adult, or tool) with more knowledge helps the learner.
Example: A peer teaching a new game or an electronic tutor.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
Difference between what a child can do alone vs. with guidance.
Teaching focuses within the ZPD to build skills for independent use.
Scaffolding:
Support provided by teachers/peers to help the learner achieve new skills.
Example: Structured learning tasks that fade as competence grows.
Strengths:
Practical applications: Reciprocal teaching, scaffolding, apprenticeship.
Emphasizes collaborative learning and diverse abilities in group settings.
Holistic approach, integrating social and cultural factors.
Limitations:
Limited empirical evidence, especially regarding language’s role in development.
Doesn’t address individual differences (e.g., learning styles, personality).
Overlooks variability in outcomes among learners in similar social contexts.
Lacks specific, testable hypotheses compared to Piaget’s theory.
What is a PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography) ?
PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography) – a functional imaging technique that uses radioactive substances known as radiotracers to visualise and measure changes in metabolic processes, and in other physiological activities including blood flow, regional chemical composition, and absorption.
What is meant by the term “theory of mind”?
The ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one’s own.
Name all 5 categories of sociometric status
~Accepted
~ Rejected withdrawn
~Neglected
~Rejected aggressive
~Average
Study: Coie & Dodge (1988) – Children’s Sociometric Status
Researcher(s):
Aim: To explore peer relationships by identifying children’s sociometric status (e.g., popular, rejected, neglected).
Method: Correlational study with sociometric techniques.
Participants: Elementary school children (varied sample sizes).
Procedure:
* Used peer nomination and rating scales to classify children into categories (popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, average).
* Observed behaviors and social skills of children in each category.
Results:
* Popular children exhibited prosocial behavior and strong social skills.
* Rejected children showed aggressive or withdrawn behaviors.
* Neglected children were less socially active but not disliked.
Conclusion:
* Peer acceptance/rejection has significant implications for social development and mental health.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Practical application in understanding peer dynamics and bullying.
* Valid classification system widely used in psychology.
Limitations:
* Subjective peer evaluations may introduce bias.
* Does not account for cultural differences in peer interactions.
Study: Hoffman & Russ (2012) – Pretend Play, Creativity, and Emotion Regulation in Children
Researcher(s):
Aim: To investigate the role of pretend play in developing creativity and emotional regulation in children.
Method: Experimental study.
Participants: Preschool children aged 4-6 years.
Procedure:
* Assessed children’s pretend play using the Affect in Play Scale.
* Measured creativity through divergent thinking tasks and emotional regulation using standardized assessments.
Results:
* Positive correlation between pretend play and creativity.
* Children who engaged in more pretend play showed better emotional regulation.
Conclusion:
* Pretend play fosters critical developmental skills, supporting both emotional and cognitive growth.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Highlights the importance of play in early development.
* Practical implications for educational and therapeutic settings.
Limitations:
* Correlational data; causation cannot be firmly established.
* Small sample size reduces generalizability.
Study: Rutter (2007) – The Long-Term Effects of Deprivation in Romanian Orphans
Researcher(s):
Aim: To study the long-term cognitive and emotional effects of early deprivation in Romanian orphans.
Method: Longitudinal study.
Participants: 165 Romanian orphans adopted by UK families and a control group of UK adoptees.
Procedure:
* Assessed cognitive and emotional development at ages 4, 6, 11, and 15.
* Compared outcomes between orphans adopted before and after 6 months of age.
Results:
* Orphans adopted before 6 months showed normal development.
* Those adopted after 6 months exhibited cognitive deficits and attachment issues.
Conclusion:
* Early deprivation has long-lasting effects if it persists beyond a critical period.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Longitudinal design provides valuable developmental insights.
* Large sample improves reliability.
Limitations:
* Difficult to isolate deprivation effects from other variables.
* Ethical concerns regarding studying vulnerable children.
Study: Klasen (2010) – Posttraumatic Resilience in Former Ugandan Child Soldiers
Researcher(s):
Aim:To explore factors contributing to resilience in former Ugandan child soldiers exposed to trauma.
Method: Mixed-methods study (quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews).
Participants: 169 former child soldiers in Uganda.
Procedure:
* Measured PTSD symptoms, social support, and community reintegration.
* Analyzed interviews for qualitative insights into coping strategies.
Results:
* Strong social support and reintegration into communities correlated with resilience.
* Positive coping mechanisms, such as hope and purpose, reduced PTSD symptoms.
Conclusion:
* Resilience depends on individual, social, and community factors.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Highlights the importance of holistic recovery approaches.
* Mixed methods provide both quantitative and qualitative insights.
Limitations:
* Cultural specificity limits generalization to other contexts.
* Self-report data may introduce bias.
Study: Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond (1972) -Enriched/Impoverished Environments and Brain Structure
Researcher(s):
Aim: To study the effects of environmental enrichment or deprivation on brain development in rats.
Method: Laboratory experiment.
Participants: Rats randomly assigned to enriched, impoverished, or control conditions.
Procedure:
* Enriched condition: rats had toys and social interaction.
* Impoverished condition: rats isolated with no stimulation.
* After 30-60 days, brain structures were examined.
Results:
* Enriched rats had thicker cortexes and greater dendritic branching than impoverished rats.
Conclusion:
* Environment significantly influences brain structure and development.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Controlled variables ensure reliability.
* Pioneering study in neuroplasticity research.
Limitations:
* Animal study limits direct application to humans.
* Ethical concerns regarding animal welfare.
Study: McDermott et al. (2019) – SES and Brain Region Development
Researcher(s):
Aim: To investigate how socioeconomic status (SES) affects brain development in children using MRI scans.
Method: Correlational study.
Participants: Children aged 3-20 years from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.
Procedure:
* Conducted MRI scans to measure brain region volumes.
* Analyzed associations between SES, gray matter, and cortical thickness.
Results:
* Children from lower SES backgrounds had reduced gray matter and cortical thickness, particularly in language and executive function regions.
Conclusion:
* SES influences brain development, likely due to differences in environmental stimulation and stress levels.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Large sample size increases generalizability.
* Advanced imaging provides detailed, reliable data.
Limitations:
* Correlational design cannot establish causation.
* Ethical concerns with labeling based on SES.
Study: Nicholls (1969) – Social/Collaborative Learning
Researcher(s):
Aim: To investigate the role of collaborative learning in enhancing children’s problem-solving abilities.
Method: Experimental design with task-based activities.
Participants: Children aged 4-10 years.
Procedure:
* Children were divided into groups or worked individually to solve puzzles.
* Performance and problem-solving strategies were compared.
Results:
* Collaborative groups outperformed individuals, especially among older children.
* Younger children benefited less due to difficulty in coordinating with peers.
Conclusion:
* Social interaction facilitates learning, particularly as cognitive abilities mature.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Demonstrated importance of Vygotsky’s concept of social interaction.
* Practical applications in education.
Limitations:
* Lack of ecological validity; tasks were artificial.
* Group dynamics could influence results.
Study: Connor & Cross (2003) – Scaffolding
Researcher(s):
Aim: To examine how parental scaffolding evolves as children develop problem-solving skills.
Method: Longitudinal study.
Participants: Children and their parents (sample size varied).
Procedure:
* Observed parent-child interactions during problem-solving tasks at ages 2, 3, and 4.
* Measured changes in the nature of parental guidance.
Results:
* Scaffolding decreased as children gained independence.
* Parents provided more specific guidance when children struggled.
Conclusion:
* Scaffolding is tailored to the child’s developmental stage, supporting Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Longitudinal approach provided insight into developmental changes.
* Real-world tasks increase ecological validity.
Limitations:
* Small sample sizes reduce generalizability.
* Difficult to control extraneous variables.
Study: Chugani (1999) – Brain Development in Infants and Young Children
Researcher(s):
Aim: To investigate metabolic changes in brain regions during early development using PET scans.
Method: Case studies with brain imaging.
Participants: Infants and young children.
Procedure:
* PET scans measured glucose metabolism in different brain regions.
* Changes observed from birth through early childhood.
Results:
* Lower brain areas (brainstem) active at birth; cerebral cortex activity increased with age.
* Rapid development in the first year, followed by gradual specialization.
Conclusion:
* Brain development follows predictable patterns, linked to maturation and environmental interaction.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* First study to use PET scans in infants, offering detailed insights.
* Clear evidence of developmental changes.
Limitations:
* Ethical concerns with scanning young children.
* Small sample size limits generalizability.
Study: Giedd (2004) – Brain Structure in Developing Children
Researcher(s):
Aim: To investigate changes in brain structure during childhood and adolescence using MRI scans.
Method: Longitudinal study using MRI imaging.
Participants: 145 children and adolescents aged 4-21.
Procedure:
* Participants underwent repeated MRI scans over several years.
* Focused on changes in gray matter volume in various brain regions.
Results:
* Gray matter peaks in early adolescence (ages 11-12) before declining due to pruning.
* Different regions develop at different rates, e.g., the prefrontal cortex matures last.
Conclusion:
* Brain development is a dynamic process influenced by biological and environmental factors.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
* Large, longitudinal sample offers reliable data.
* Advanced MRI techniques provide accurate measurements.
Limitations:
* Correlational study; causation cannot be determined.
* Cultural differences in brain development not explored.
