Biological Approach

Question 1

What is the difference between MRI and fMRI

Answer 1

~fMRI– Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a brain scan using magnets to align particles in the body and measure the blood flow.
~MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a brain scan using magnets to align particles in the body.

Question 2

Can you name any fMRI related studies

Answer 2

Fisher et al- the role of dopamine

Question 3

Can you name any MRI related studies

Answer 3

~Draginski (neuroplasticity in response to juggling)
~Maguire ( brain plasticity in London black taxi drivers)
~Corkin et al (HM)

Question 4

Which part of the brain is responsible for coordination?

Answer 4

Cerebellum

Question 5

Which part of the brain is responsible for the reward system?

Answer 5

VTA

Question 6

Explain the concept of localisation and function

Answer 6

The concept that different parts of the brain are responsible for individual functions. Damage to specific parts of the brain results in specific loss or change in function.

Question 7

What is neuroplasticity

Answer 7

The ability of the brain to change its neural structures in order to adopt to change is called neuroplasticity.

Question 8

How does neuroplasticity happen?

Answer 8

The brain is made up of Neurons- a specialised cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.

They are joined at the axon and dendrite where synapses are used to pass signals from one neuron to another.
1. long term potentiation
2. dendritic branching
3. neural network

Question 9

What is pruning?

Answer 9

Neural pathways are severed, or weakened due to changes in understanding or not being used.

Question 10

What is dendritic branching

Answer 10

Neurons joining to form new connections

Question 11

When given a question on neuroplasticity which studies will you use

Answer 11

~Maguire et al (Taxi Drivers)
~Draganski- Juggling

Question 12

Study: Cases et al. (1995)
Researcher(s): Cases et al.
Aim: To investigate the genetic origins of aggression by studying the effects of the MAOA gene in mice.

Answer 12

Method: Laboratory experiment with genetically modified mice.

Participants: Mice with a genetic knockout of the MAOA gene (MAOA-deficient mice) and a control group of normal mice.

Procedure:

Researchers genetically engineered mice that lacked the MAOA enzyme, which breaks down neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine.
The behavior of the genetically modified mice was compared to normal mice. They observed and recorded aggressive behaviors (biting, attacking, etc.) in various situations.
Results:

The MAOA-deficient mice exhibited increased aggression, particularly during male-male confrontations. They also showed abnormal behavior like hyper-reactivity to stimuli.
Conclusion:

Low levels of MAOA are associated with increased aggression, suggesting that genetic factors (such as the MAOA gene) can influence aggressive behavior by affecting neurotransmitter regulation.
Evaluation:

Strengths:
High control over variables (genetic manipulation and observation).
Provides insight into the biological origins of aggression, particularly the role of the MAOA gene.
Limitations:
Animal study: Findings may not generalize directly to humans (issues of external validity).
Ethical concerns: Manipulating genes in animals and inducing aggression can raise ethical questions.
Aggression is a complex behaviour influenced by multiple factors (social, environmental), so the study may oversimplify the role of genetics.

Question 13

Study: McGaugh & Cahill (1995) (FBM)
Researcher(s): McGaugh & Cahill
Aim: To investigate the role of emotion on memory consolidation.

Answer 13

Method: Laboratory experiment
Participants: Adults, split into two groups exposed to different stories.
Procedure: Participants heard either an emotionally arousing story or a neutral story paired with images. Two weeks later, they were tested on memory recall.
Results: Participants who heard the emotional story recalled significantly more details than those who heard the neutral story.
Conclusion: Emotional arousal aids memory consolidation, likely through the release of stress hormones.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Supports the biological basis of emotional memory; strong control of variables.
Limitations: Low ecological validity as stories and images may not represent real-life emotional events.

Question 14

Study: Corkin (1997)
Researcher(s): Suzanne Corkin
Aim: To analyse brain structure of the famous amnesiac patient H.M. using MRI.

Answer 14

Method: Case study with MRI imaging
Participants: H.M. (Henry Molaison), a patient with severe anterograde amnesia
Procedure: MRI scans of H.M.’s brain were conducted to assess the areas affected by a surgery that removed parts of the hippocampus and other regions.
Results: Corkin identified that H.M. had damage to the hippocampus, amygdala, and surrounding areas, supporting the role of the hippocampus in memory formation.
Conclusion: The hippocampus is crucial for forming new memories, specifically episodic and declarative memory.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides insight into brain localization of memory functions.
Limitations: Findings are specific to H.M.; may not generalize to the general population.

Question 15

Study: Maguire et al. (2000)
Researcher(s): Eleanor Maguire and colleagues
Aim: To investigate whether extensive spatial navigation experience influences hippocampal volume.

Answer 15

Method: Quasi-experimental study with MRI imaging
Participants: London taxi drivers compared to a control group of non-taxi drivers
Procedure: MRI scans were used to compare the hippocampal volume between taxi drivers and non-drivers.
Results: Taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampus, suggesting a relationship between spatial memory and hippocampal volume.
Conclusion: Extensive spatial navigation experience can lead to neuroplasticity in the hippocampus.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Strong evidence for neuroplasticity; well-controlled comparison.
Limitations: Possible self-selection bias; findings may be specific to this particular skill set.

Question 16

Study: Fisher et al. (2003)
Researcher(s): Helen Fisher and colleagues
Aim: To examine the role of dopamine in feelings of romantic love.

Answer 16

Method: fMRI study
Participants: Individuals in the early stages of romantic love
Procedure: Participants viewed images of their romantic partner and a neutral acquaintance while in an fMRI scanner. Brain activity was recorded and compared.
Results: Viewing images of their romantic partner activated brain regions associated with dopamine release, like the caudate nucleus.
Conclusion: Romantic love activates dopaminergic pathways, similar to those activated by rewarding stimuli.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Highlights the biological basis of emotions.
Limitations: Only studies early-stage love; findings may not extend to long-term relationships.

Question 17

Study: Draganski et al. (2004)
Researcher(s): Arne Draganski and colleagues
Aim: To examine whether learning a new skill, like juggling, can induce structural changes in the brain.

Answer 17

Method: Experimental, longitudinal MRI study
Participants: Two groups – juggling and non-juggling participants
Procedure: Participants in the juggling group learned a three-ball juggling routine, and brain scans were taken before and after learning.
Results: Increased gray matter in the mid-temporal area associated with visual and motor coordination was observed in the juggling group.
Conclusion: Learning new skills can lead to neuroplasticity, with structural brain changes in relevant areas.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides evidence for experience-dependent plasticity.
Limitations: Small sample size; findings may not be generalizable to all skills.

Question 18

Study: Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972)
Researcher(s): Mark Rosenzweig and Edward Bennett
Aim: To study the effects of an enriched environment on brain structure in rats.

Answer 18

Method: Laboratory experiment
Participants: Rats placed in enriched or impoverished environments
Procedure: Rats were kept in either enriched (toys, companions) or impoverished (isolated) environments, and their brains were later examined.
Results: Rats in the enriched environment had thicker cortexes and higher levels of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter associated with learning.
Conclusion: Environmental enrichment promotes brain development and learning capacity.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Demonstrates the impact of the environment on neuroplasticity.
Limitations: Findings may not directly apply to humans.

Question 19

Study: Rogers & Kesner (2003)
Researcher(s): Rogers & Kesner
Aim: To investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation.

Answer 19

Method: Experimental study on rats
Participants: Rats trained in a maze
Procedure: Rats were divided into two groups, one receiving a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptors and the other a placebo. Memory recall in the maze was then tested.
Results: Rats with blocked acetylcholine receptors showed impaired memory and were less able to navigate the maze.
Conclusion: Acetylcholine is essential for memory formation and retrieval.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides insight into neurotransmitter functions in learning.
Limitations: Results in rats may not directly translate to human memory processes.

Question 20

Study: Dabbs et al. (1995)
Researcher(s): James Dabbs and colleagues
Aim: To explore the relationship between testosterone levels and aggression.

Answer 20

Method: Correlational study
Participants: Male prisoners
Procedure: Testosterone levels were measured in male prisoners, and their aggression levels were assessed through behavioral observation and criminal records.
Results: Higher testosterone levels correlated with higher aggression and violent criminal behavior.
Conclusion: Testosterone may play a role in aggressive behavior.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Highlights biological influences on aggression.
Limitations: Correlational; causation cannot be confirmed.

Question 21

Study: Albert et al. (1986)
Researcher(s): Albert and colleagues
Aim: To investigate the effects of testosterone on aggression in rats.

Answer 21

Method: Experimental study with hormonal manipulation
Participants: Male rats
Procedure: Male rats were divided into groups, some of which were castrated (removing the primary source of testosterone). Aggression levels were then observed.
Results: Castrated rats showed reduced aggression, while those given testosterone replacement became more aggressive.
Conclusion: Testosterone levels significantly affect aggressive behavior in rodents.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides experimental evidence of testosterone’s role in aggression.
Limitations: Findings in rats may not generalise to humans.

Question 22

Study: Meaney et al. (1988)
Researcher(s): Michael Meaney and colleagues
Aim: To examine the effects of early stress exposure on hippocampal development.

Answer 22

Method: Experimental, longitudinal study
Participants: Newborn rats, grouped based on maternal licking and grooming behavior (high-licking/grooming and low-licking/grooming)
Procedure: The researchers observed how maternal care affected the rats’ stress response later in life. After separating pups from their mothers and exposing them to stress, Meaney assessed cortisol levels and hippocampal structure.
Results: Rats with low maternal grooming showed elevated cortisol levels and reduced hippocampal volume, indicating that high maternal care reduced stress vulnerability.
Conclusion: Early maternal care influences stress regulation and brain development, potentially via changes in the hippocampus and cortisol response.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides strong evidence of the impact of early experiences on brain development.
Limitations: Findings in rats may not fully generalize to humans; ethical concerns about animal stress.

Question 23

Study: Zhou et al. (2014)
Researcher(s): Zhou and colleagues
Aim: To examine whether pheromones affect perceptions of sexual attractiveness based on biological sex and sexual orientation.

Answer 23

Method: Experimental study
Participants: Heterosexual and homosexual men and women
Procedure: Participants watched an animation of a moving figure and were exposed to the putative pheromones AND (androstenone) and EST (estratetraenol). They were asked to judge the gender of the moving figure under different conditions.
Results: Heterosexual women and homosexual men exposed to AND more often perceived the figure as male, while heterosexual men and homosexual women exposed to EST perceived it as female.
Conclusion: AND and EST may serve as pheromones influencing gender perception in ways that correlate with sexual orientation.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides experimental support for a link between pheromones and sexual attraction.
Limitations: Controlled lab setting may not reflect real-world pheromone exposure effects.

Question 24

Study: Wedekind (1995)
Researcher(s): Claus Wedekind
Aim: To determine if MHC (major histocompatibility complex) influences mate selection based on scent.

Answer 24

Method: Experimental study
Participants: Male and female college students
Procedure: Male participants wore the same T-shirt for two nights without using scented products. Female participants then smelled the T-shirts and rated them for attractiveness.
Results: Women generally preferred the scent of men whose MHC genes were dissimilar to their own.
Conclusion: MHC dissimilarity may play a role in mate selection, potentially enhancing offspring immunity.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Suggests a biological basis for mate selection through olfactory cues.
Limitations: Small sample and cultural factors may influence mate preference.

Question 25

Study: Caspi et al. (2003)
Researcher(s): Avshalom Caspi and colleagues
Aim: To investigate the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression following stressful life events.

Answer 25

Method: Longitudinal study
Participants: Over 1,000 New Zealanders
Procedure: Participants were assessed for stressful life events and symptoms of depression, with genotyping conducted to determine which variant of the 5-HTT gene they carried.
Results: Individuals with the short allele of the 5-HTT gene were more likely to develop depression following stressful life events.
Conclusion: The 5-HTT gene may influence vulnerability to depression, suggesting a gene-environment interaction.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Shows the complex interplay of genetics and environment.
Limitations: Causality cannot be confirmed; findings may vary by population.

Question 26

Study: Hamer et al. (1993)
Researcher(s): Dean Hamer and colleagues
Aim: To investigate whether there is a genetic component to male sexual orientation.

Answer 26

Method: Genetic linkage analysis
Participants: 40 pairs of homosexual brothers
Procedure: DNA samples were analyzed to look for genetic markers on the X chromosome that correlated with sexual orientation.
Results: A linkage was found between a specific region of the X chromosome (Xq28) and homosexuality in the sample.
Conclusion: Findings suggest a potential genetic influence on male sexual orientation, though it is not solely determined by genetics.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Highlights possible genetic factors in sexual orientation.
Limitations: Sample size and sample specificity limit generalizability; findings remain controversial.

Question 27

Study: Bailey & Pillard (1991)
Researcher(s): Michael Bailey and Richard Pillard
Aim: To determine if sexual orientation has a genetic basis by studying concordance rates in twins.

Answer 27

Method: Twin study
Participants: Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins, as well as adoptive brothers
Procedure: Researchers assessed the sexual orientation of twins and adoptive brothers, comparing concordance rates.
Results: Higher concordance rates for homosexuality were found in MZ twins compared to DZ twins and adoptive brothers, suggesting a genetic component.
Conclusion: Findings support a genetic influence on sexual orientation, though it is not solely determined by genetics.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Provides insights through genetic comparison; twin studies offer natural control.
Limitations: Small sample sizes; social and environmental factors not fully accounted for.

Question 28

Study: Bouchard et al. (1981)
Researcher(s): Thomas Bouchard and colleagues
Aim: To investigate the heritability of intelligence by comparing twins raised together and apart.

Answer 28

Method: Longitudinal twin study
Participants: Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins raised together and apart
Procedure: Twins underwent intelligence tests and their IQ scores were compared based on their upbringing.
Results: MZ twins raised apart had an average concordance rate of about 70%, suggesting that genetics play a significant role in intelligence.
Conclusion: Genetics play a large role in intelligence, though the environment also contributes.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Large-scale twin study with extensive testing.
Limitations: Some socioeconomic factors were unaccounted for; findings may not generalize to all populations.

Question 29

Study: Buss (1989)
Researcher(s): David Buss
Aim: To investigate mate preferences across different cultures and determine if there are universal patterns.

Answer 29

Method: Cross-cultural survey
Participants: Over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures
Procedure: Participants completed surveys regarding their mate preferences, focusing on factors like age, physical attractiveness, financial prospects, and personality traits.
Results: Men generally preferred younger, physically attractive partners, while women preferred older partners with good financial prospects.
Conclusion: There are universal trends in mate preferences, possibly driven by evolutionary pressures related to reproductive success.
Evaluation:
Strengths: Large sample size; cross-cultural relevance.
Limitations: Self-reported data may introduce bias; cultural norms can affect responses.

Question 30

What is a gene?

Answer 30

the basic unit through which genetic information is stored and passed between generations.

Question 31

What is a pheromone?

Answer 31

a chemical messenger secreted to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species, in which they release a specific reaction.

Question 32

What is a hormone?

Answer 32

a chemical messenger released from endocrine glands that travels through the blood system to influence the nervous system to regulate behaviors such as aggression, mating, and parenting of individuals.

Question 33

what area of the brain does draganski focus on?

Answer 33

the mid-temporal lobe