Research Methods Flashcards
Three purposes of research
Explanatory: experiments, hypothesis testing.
Exploratory: to investigate new area
Descriptive: Describe the situation
Types of survey instrument
Questionnaires. Structured interviews
Informed consent
accurately informing your subject as to the nature of the research, information on questionnaire, covering letter or interview consent form, written consent to participate or verbal consent.
Implied consent
Inform subject about research, implied consent given by return of form, e.g. short postal questionnaire
Confidentiality
All data treated as confidential, no information published will identify persons or organisations without their permission. Code umber included in right top corner of questionnaire
Anonymity
Not the same as confidentiality, can only be promised in some circumstances, no code numbers, no method of sending reminders.
A good response rate
> 60%
Response rate =
(number completed/ number in sample) x 100
Closed questions
Easier to analyse, good if questionnaire is long, better if motivation is low, quick and easy to answer, creates false options.bias if not all options included, good design is vital, loss of spontaneity
Open questions
Elicit a wide variety of responses, good for exploring, does not superimpose answers/expectations, difficult to summarise/analyse, response must be reported accurately, unpopular if used a lost in a postal questionnaire.
Avoid in questions
jargon/abbreviations, vague terms, leading questions, double-barrelled, double negative, presumptions, complex questions, boring questions, filter questions, social desirability effects, other peoples’ influence.
Include in questions
Common concepts, simple and short questions
Likert scale
A 5 point scale, sometimes 3 point. Scales with no mid-point do not allow respondents to be noncommittal, can lead to missing responses. Mid point = neither agree nor disagree
Semantic differential
pair of opposite statements
Visual scales
e.g. put a cross on line which corresponds with your pain (usually 10 cm)
Postal questionnaire design
Instructions, double sided (ensure that it is not cramped), good use of white space, avoid all capital letter, return date and address at the end, thank you at the end.
Interview design
Instructions, single sided helps interviewer keep rapport
General questionnaire design
Indicate whether it’s confidential/anonymous, sections, number all questions, demographic info at the end, avoid small type face, limited number of type faces, don’t split question across pages, boxes or lines for open questions.
Increases response rate of postal questionnaires
Advance warning, letter of introduction, address envelope to respondent, incentive, stress confidentiality, make questionnaire look pleasant, do not make it longer than 8 sides, link questions and sections, include and return envelope and postage, contact phone number for queries, put a return date so that reminders can be sent.
Questionnaire covering letters
Aim of the questionnaire, stress confidentiality/anonymity, convey importance of study, encourage recipients to reply, signed by researchers and job titles, if sponsored mention this, used personalised approach, explain how and why sample was generated, reply by date included (2/3 weeks), no more than one side of A4
Questions to consider at pilot
How long did it take to complete, instructions clear, questions ambiguous, questions objectionable, layout clear and easy to follow, any topics omitted?
Quantitative research methods
self-administered questionnaire, structures or semi structures interviews, structures observation (non-participant)
Self administered questionnaire
A collection of questions administered and answered by respondents without the aid of an interviewer. E.g. postal questionnaire, e-mail surveys, web surveys, researcher handing out surveys to a class and collecting them and the end.
Advantages of self administered questionnaires
Low cost of data collection and processing, quick to administer, absence of interviewer bias, access to respondents who live at widely dispersed addresses or abroad, contact people who are rarely at home, convenient for respondents, used to screen a population for subsection who can then be interviewed.
Disadvantages of self administered questionnaire
need accurate and up to date list of population, low response rates, unsuitable for some respondents e.g. poor literacy, visually impaired, children. Cannot correct misunderstanding, no control over order of questions answered, do not know who answers questionnaire, cannot collect additional data, e.g. observation. greater risk of missing data, rely on respondent to complete questionnaire aided only by written instruction and covering letter
Structured interview
A research interview in which all respondents are asked exactly the same questions in the same order with the aid of a formal interview schedule.
Semi-structured interview
The researched has a series of general questions that are in the form of an interview guide but is able to vary the sequence on the questions. The interveiwer usually has some latitude to ask further questions in response to what are seen as significant replies.
Advantages of interviews
Used for samples where there are no complete sits, interview schedules can be longer and more complete, obtain more detailed information, good response rates, used for people who are not literate, use prompts to explain what question means, interviewer has control over question order, useful for sensitive subjects, face to face allows collection of observational data.
Disadvantages of interviews
Expensive, difficult to use with diffuse samples, interviewer bias, acquiescence, social desirability, evaluation apprehension, respondents cannot consult records.
Interviewer bias
Where the interviewer influences the responses given, e.g. by how they are dressed or respond to comments
Acquiescence
say yes to everything irrespective of what is asked
social desirability
interviewee gives the socially acceptable answer rather than their own opinion
Evaluation apprehension
interviewee alters their views, beliefs or opinions because they want to give you what they think you need.
Structured observation
A technique in which the research employs explicitly formulated rules for the observation and recording of behaviour. These rules are articulated in an observation schedule.
