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A LEVEL PSYCH > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

define experimental method

A

involves manipulation of an IV to measure the effect of the DV. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi

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2
Q

define aim

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study

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3
Q

define hypothesis

A

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study

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4
Q

define directional hypothesis

A

states the direction of the difference or relationships (one tailed)
previous research available and reliable

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5
Q

define non directional hypothesis

A

does not state direction of the difference or relationships
no previous research available

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6
Q

define operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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7
Q

define extraneous variable

A

any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controlled. nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV

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8
Q

define Confounding variables

A

A kind of EV but the key feature is that it varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we cannot tell if changes in the DV are due to the IV or the CV.

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9
Q

define Demand characteristics

A

any cue from the researcher/research situation that may be interpreted by the ppts as revealing the purpose of an investigation .This may lead to a participant to change their behaviour within the research situtaion

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10
Q

define investigator effect

A

any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with participants during the research process

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11
Q

define randomisation.

A

the use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when deciding the order of experimental conditions

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12
Q

define matched pair design

A

pairs of ppts are first matched on some variables that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B

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13
Q

define standardisation

A

using exactly the same formalised procedure and instructions for all the participants in a research study

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14
Q

define experimental design

A

the different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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15
Q

define independent group designs

A

ppts are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

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16
Q

define repeated measures

A

all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

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17
Q

define random allocation

A

an attempt to control for participant variables in an independent group design which ensures each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as the other

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18
Q

define counter balancing

A

an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the ppts experience the condition in one order and the other half in the opposite order

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19
Q

define a lab experiment

A

conducted in highly controlled settings/environment (not only in a lab.) IV in manipulated to see the effect on the DV

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20
Q

define A field experiment

A

IV is manipulated to see the effect on the DV, This occurs in a natural setting/every day sitution

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21
Q

define a natural experiment

A

eg. earthquakes
The IV id not manipulated by the researcher but would have occurred anyway. The IV is naturally occurring and the DV is measured.

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22
Q

define a Quasi experiment

A

IV is not manipulated by the researcher, instead it is based on existing differences between people to see the effect on the DV.
–> also highly controlled like the lab
—> eg. age/gender/ethnicity

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23
Q

Strengths and limitations of Lab experiments

A

S-
EVs and CVs can be controlled
high internal validity
can easily be replicated
L-
May lack generalisability/low external validity
low mundane realism/low ecological validity
Demand characteristics-> ppts may guess the purpose of the study

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24
Q

Strengths and limitations of field experiments

A

S-
natural environment/ high mundane realism
ppts don’t know they are part of the investigation therefore low risk of demand characteristics
L-
Natural event may only occur rarely
Participants are not allocated randomly–> difficult to generalise

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25
Q

Strengths and limitations of Natural experiments

A

S-
sometimes only way to carry out an ethical investigation
great external validity
L.
Lack of mundane realism+ demand characteristics if conducted in a lab.
participants are not randomly allocated- findings may not be generalisable
these events rarely occur

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26
Q

strengths and limitations of Quasi experiments

A

S- high control
comparisons can be made between people
L- people cannot be randomly allocated therefore there may be CVs
Iv is not deliberately changed by the researcher therefore, we cannot be sure if it is the thing affecting the DV

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27
Q

describe what happens during briefing

A

this occurs before the study. The researcher informs the ppts about some or all of the aims, what they will be asked to do, their rights and whether they want to participate.

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28
Q

describe what happens during debriefing

A

occurs at the end of a study. This is important if deception has been used. Participants should be informed about the true nature of the study and must give their consent for their data to be used

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29
Q

name some examples of sampling techniques

A

random, stratified, opportunity, volunteer, systematic

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30
Q

Describe stratified sampling

A
  1. researcher calculates proportion of ppts needed to mirror the target population-
    researcher stratifies the population into a sampling frame to represent different subgroups within the target
  2. all names go into a random generator
  3. select names until they have the desired number of ppts

the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population or wider population.

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31
Q

define opportunity sample

A

researchers selecting anyone that seems to be willing and available

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32
Q

define volunteer sample

A

participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample (self selection)

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33
Q

define systematic sampling

A

researchers select ppts in a systematic way from the target population.

  1. produce a sampling frame- a list of people in the target population organised in a particular way (eg. alphabetical order)

2.choose sampling system (eg. every 3rd person)

3.work through sampling frame until it is complete

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34
Q

define random sampling

A

when all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
eg. lottery method.

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35
Q

Strengths and Limitations of Random sampling

A

strengths
+unbiased-extraneous and confounding variables equally divided between groups increasing internal validity
Limitations
-Time consuming
-expensive
-selected participants may not agree to participate (it becomes more of a volunteer sample)

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36
Q

Strengths and Limitations of a systematic sample

A

S
+objective- once the system for sampling has been produced the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.

L
-time consuming
-may result in a volunteer sample

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37
Q

Strengths and Limitations of stratified samples

A

S
+can be generalised
+reduces researcher bias as once the strata has been identified the ppts are picked randomly
+highly representative–> easier to generalise
L
-does not fully represent target population, as there are personal differences not taken into account (dispositional variables)

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38
Q

Strengths and Limitations of Opportunity sample

A

s
+convenient
+more economic

L
-unrepresentative of the target population
-findings cannot be generalised-people taken from specific area
-researcher bias-researcher controls selection of ppts

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39
Q

Strengths and Limitations of Volunteer sample

A

S
more economical
less time consuming-easy to collect
engaged participants

L
-volunteer bias asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile… may try to please researcher

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40
Q

what is the BPS

A

British Psychological society -A quasi legal document that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. the code is built around 4 major principles… respect, competence, responsibility and integrity

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41
Q

Outline informed consent as an ethical issue

A

making participants aware of the aim of the research, their rights (eg. right to withdraw) and how their data will be used.
the ppt must make an informed judgement to take part, not feeling obliged

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42
Q

outline deception as an ethical issue

A

deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation

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43
Q

outline protection from harm in regards to ethical issues

A

participants should not be placed in more danger than they would be in their daily lives. this includes embarrassment or placed under stress/psychological stress.

–> participants must be reminded they have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any point

44
Q

outline privacy and confidentiality in regards to ethical issues

A

ppts have the right to control information about themselves.
data protection act- confidentiality
the right to privacy also extends to the area the study was carried out in.

45
Q

Name and explain some alternative ways of getting consent

A

Presumptive consent- instead of getting consent from the actual ppts, they ask another group of people if the study is acceptable.

Prior General Consent-ppts had given their permission to take part in a number of different studies including some that may have included deception

retrospective consent- ppts asked for their consent during debriefing after having already taken part in the study.

46
Q

describe what a pilot study is and outline their aim-/purpose

A

a small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. Their aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work .The aim is to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications where necessary.

47
Q

what is the single-blind procedure

A

when the participants are not aware of what the study’s aim is. This is done to control the confounding effects of demand characteristics

48
Q

what is the double blind procedure

A

when neither the participant not the researcher who conducts the study know the aim
this reduces researcher bias, they do not have expectations so their conclusions will not be biased

49
Q

define a naturalistic observation`

A

watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it should normally occur.

50
Q

describe controlled observations

A

watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment with standardized procedure

51
Q

describe covert observations

A

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.

52
Q

define overt observations

A

participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

53
Q

define participant observations

A

the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

54
Q

define non participant observations

A

the researcher remains separate to the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

55
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic technique

A

s-
high external validity- higher generalisability

w-low internal validity- cannot control internal variables
lack of control of EVs

56
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of controlled technique

A

s-
high internal validity
replicability

w-
low external validity lacks mundane realism
prone to demand characteristics since participants know they are part of the study

57
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of overt technique

A

s-
ethical

w-demand characteristics- we do not get a real insight on natural behaviour

58
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of of covert technique

A

s-
minimises chances of demand characteristics
validity- better insight on what is causing behaviour to change

w- ethical issues, lack of informed consent
privacy and confidentiality issues when it comes to how data is handled

59
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of participant technique

A

w-
loss of objectivity- researcher begins to identify too strongly with the people they are investigating
this means they may begin to interpret participants in a more subjective way (based on personal opinions and beliefs)

s-validity- greater insight

60
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of non-participant technique

A

s-
researcher is more likely to remain objective

w-
does not allow as much insight as participant technique

61
Q

do observations have IVs

A

NO THEY DO NOT, REMEMBER THAT IDIOT

62
Q

define behavioural categories

A

when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)

63
Q

define time sampling

A

a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, eg every 60 secs

64
Q

define event sampling

A

target behaviour/event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

65
Q

what is an observational design

A

how researcher would plan an observational study

66
Q

what is a unstructured observation

A

involves the researcher writing down everything they see. this is often rich in detail and is most appropriate for small scale observations with few participants

-usually qualitative data collected

67
Q

strengths and weaknesses of unstructured observations

A

s-
richness of data collected adds to internal validity

w-
prone to observer bias due to lack of objective categories. Issue with interobserver bias due to lack of consistency in observations recorded

68
Q

what are structured observations

A

sometimes there may be too much to note down so the researcher uses coded schedules to organise data and behavioural categories. This involves breaking target behaviour into measurable and observable components

-usually quantitative data

69
Q

Strengths and weaknesses of structured observations

A

s-
researcher can compare the behaviour of participants across groups, the use of operationalised categories makes the coding of data more systematic

w-
lower internal validity because researcher my miss out other crucial behaviours.

70
Q

what is inter observer reliability

A

2 or more researchers observe the same situation separately and then their observations are correlated to see if they are similar.

71
Q

define what is meant by acquiescent bias

A

tendency for people to agree rather than to disagree

72
Q

state some self report techniques

A

questionnaires, interviews, structured, semi-structured and unstructured.

73
Q

what is a questionnaire

A

written self report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to answer.
They can be administered in person, by post, online, by telephone and in groups of people.

74
Q

state and describe two possible formats of questionnaires

A

closed Qs- pre-determined set of answers to choose from-quantitative

open Qs- no restrictions on how participants make their response- qualitative

75
Q

Evaluation- strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires

A

S-
cheap and quick way to get a large amount of data.

can completed privately (anonymously) answers are more likely to be honest/valid.

W-
reduced validity due to social desirability bias- ppts choosing particular answers just so that they can present themselves as socially acceptable.

often suffers from low response rate.

may be completed incorrectly if done in private as there is no experimenter to ask for guidance.

76
Q

what is an interview

A

a self report technique that involves the experimenter asking the participant Qs usually in one to one basis and recording their responses

77
Q

state and describe the 3 types of interviews

A

STRUCTURED-list of questions to answer, framework is rigid and standardised.

SEMI-STRUCTURED-there are some pre-set Qs but follow-ups may be asked throughput the interview

UNSTRUCTURED- interviewer may have a list of topics but has flexibility to lead the convo further leading to a deeper and more detailed discussion

78
Q

EValuation Strengths and Weaknesses of Interviews

A

S-
unstructured interviews provide potential to gather rich and detailed info from each participant

unstructured best sited for discussing complex or sensitive issues as participants are more likely to relax and give valid responses as the responses flow

structured interviews in which questions are standardised allow for easier data comparisons

interviews can be used in pilot studies to gather information prior to conducting the proposed research

W-
lots of time and expenses involved in training interviewers

structured do not allow follow-ups thus missing valuable insight

time consuming to test and analyse

interviews require people to have competencies this could potentially limit sample size

79
Q

define primary data and give examples

A

field research- original data collected first-hand specifically for the investigation by the researcher

eg. questionnaire/ observation

80
Q

define secondary data and give examples

A

desk research , data is already existing has been collected by someone else.

eg. journals/ articles

81
Q

difference between qualitative and quantitative data

A

quantitative- numerical
qualitative- data that is expressed in words and usually non-numerical

82
Q

S and W of qualitative data

A

S-
greater external validity- broader in scope as ppts are able to fully report their thoughts

W-
conclusions can be subjective- biased since data is difficult to analyse

83
Q

S and W and quantitative data

A

S-
easier to analyse and draw conclusions graphically.
data is numerical so it is more objective and less open to bias

W-
narrower in detail and meaning , lower external validity

84
Q

describe meta analysis

A

the process of combining the findings of a number of studies on a particular topic. the aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of studies.

85
Q

S and W of meta analysis

A

S-
creates a larger more varied sample and results can therefore be generalised across a larger population increasing validity

W-
publication bias/file drawer problem- researcher may not select all relevant studies, leaving some out meaning that they only present some of the relevant data.

86
Q

Define population

A

a group of people who are the factors of the researchers interest from which a smaller sample is drawn

87
Q

define sample

A

a group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population being studied

88
Q

identify 5 types of sampling

A

random
systematic
stratified
opportunity
volunteer

89
Q

identify 3 categories of quantitative research

A

Nominal data
Ordinal data
interval

90
Q

describe nominal data and give an example

A

data that can be separated into discrete categories that do not overlap. Each participant only appears in one category.

examples include hair colour

91
Q

describe ordinal data and give an example

A

ordered date where there is no standardised value for the difference from one score to another. Used in subjective studies. They lack certainty.

eg a rating of satisfaction regarding service

92
Q

describe interval data and give an example

A

data where the difference between values is standardised. It is objective and scientific

for example temperature

93
Q

advantages and limitations of ordinal data

A

Strength
more detailed

Limitations
intervals not equal between scores.
therefore average cannot be used s a measure of central tendency

—>median is usually used to overcome this limitation

94
Q

S and L of nominal data

A

S
easily generated
-mode can be used as a measure of central tendency

L
data does not reflect its true complexity therefore it can appear overly simplistic.
no measure of dispersion can be used

95
Q

define what we mean by ‘measures of central tendency’ and provide examples

A

averages which give us information about the most typical values in a set of data.
MEAN- average
MODE-most frequent
MEDIAN-middle

96
Q

define what we mean by measures of dispersion

A

based on the spread of scores, how far scores vary and differ from one another.

range
standard deviation

97
Q

define standard deviation

A

a single value that tells us how far scores deviate , move away from the mean.

98
Q

the larger the standard deviation value the ___________ the dispersion of data. Suggesting that not all ppts were affected by the IV in the same way. Meaning there may be a few anomalous results

A

the larger the standard deviation value the greater the dispersion of data. Suggesting that not all ppts were affected by the IV in the same way. Meaning there may be a few anomalous results

99
Q

why is the standard deviation a more precise measure of dispersion than the range?

A

standard deviation includes all the values…
HOWEVER that also can lead to distorted result due to extreme values

100
Q

what does the correlation co efficient tell us?

A

the strength of the correlation, how strong the relationship between then 2 variables is

101
Q

state the correlation coefficient of a perfect negative and a perfect positive

A

perfect negative= +1.0
perfect positive= -1.0

102
Q

A correlation co efficient of 0.00 means…

A

there is no relationship between the variables

103
Q

define peer review

A

the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is high quality.

104
Q

what are the aims of peer review

A

to validate quality and relevance of the study- methodology and conclusions are assessed in terms of accuracy and validity

to allocate research funding

to suggest amendments or improvements before publication

105
Q

what can be some points of evaluation

A

anonymity- some reviewers may use this to criticise rival researchers

Publication bias-tendency for editors to publish significant looking findings which may cause them to not publish something that may acc be important. This creates false impression of the current state of psychology

Burying ground breaking research- professionals in the field asses credibility- if does not align with the current research they my not publish.

A LEVEL PSYCH (8 decks)

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