MEMORY

Question 1

Define short term memory

Answer 1

the limited capacity memory store

Question 2

define long term memory

Answer 2

the permanent memory store

Question 3

Define coding of memory

Answer 3

the format in which memories are stored in the memory stores

Question 4

define capacity

Answer 4

the amount of information that can be held in a memory store

Question 5

define duration

Answer 5

the length of time information can be held in memory for

Question 6

The multi store model was created by….

Answer 6

Shiffrin and Atkinson

Question 7

Describe how the multi store model works

Answer 7

stimuli from the environment passes into the sensory register(this has several registers one for each of our 5 senses)

Question 8

the store coding for visual images is….. while the store coding for sound is…

Answer 8

iconic-visual images
echoic/acoustic-sounds

Question 9

state the
CAPACITY
DURATION
CODING
of the SENSORY REGISTER

Answer 9

CAPACITY= large

DURATION= brief-fades from store really quickly

CODING= memory is held in the same sense it is registered

Question 10

state the
CAPACITY
DURATION
CODING
of SHORT TERM MEMORY

Answer 10

CAPACITY=7+-2 (5-9 items)
DURATION=if rehearsed can be transferred into LTM if 30 secs have not passed
CODING=holds information coming from sensory memory acoustically

Question 11

how can you improve the capacity of short term memory

Answer 11

by chunking information together

Question 12

state the
CAPACITY
DURATION
CODING
of LONG TERM MEMORY

Answer 12

CAPACITY= unlimited
DURATION= lasts from mins up to a lifetime
CODING= can store memory in a number of forms largely abstract/semantic

Question 13

describe the study conducted on Henry Molaison

Answer 13

HM underwent brain surgery where parts of his hippocampus were removed.

When HM’s memory was assessed he had little recall of the operation and couldn’t form any new long term memories.

He scored well on tests of immediate memory span.

***this can be used as supporting evidence for the multi store model as it shows short term and long term memory are separate.

Question 14

identify research conducted on coding and its results

Answer 14

Baddeley- looked at recall of similar/dissimilar words

results=STM coded acoustically. LTM coded semantically

Question 15

Evaluation of Baddeley’s study on coding

Answer 15

S
+helped development of MSM as it suggested LTM and STM are separate

L
-artificial stimuli

Question 16

research on capacity and findings

Answer 16

Miller-looked at previous studies conducted a meta analysis of studies using the digit span technique

Results= capacity of STM is 7+-2, but it can be increased by chunking

Question 17

Evaluation of Miller’s research on capacity

Answer 17

S
+replicated by other psychological research demonstrating validity of his findings

L
-Cowan suggested Miller overestimated STM and thinks capacity is actually 4+-1 items

Question 18

Research on duration of STM and its findings

Answer 18

Peterson and Peterson= tested the recall of trigrams after having to count down from a 3 digit number for varying intervals

Results= as interval for counting decreased ,accuracy of recall increased.

Question 19

Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson’s research on the duration of STM

Answer 19

S
+lab study and therefore high control on variables
L
-Artificial stimuli therefore results lack external validity

Question 20

Research on the duration of LTM and its findings

Answer 20

Bahrick et al= Ppts tested on their recall of those they graduated with.
they either had to:

1. match names to faces
2. free recall

Results= participants were more accurate when having to match names to faces than free recall. Across both groups recall declined from 15 yrs to 45 yrs after grad.
LTM may last for up to a lifetime for some info.

Question 21

Evaluation for duration of LTM research

Answer 21

S
+ high levels of ecological validity as the study used real life memories

L
-unclear as to whether long term memory becomes less accurate over time because of limited duration

Question 22

describe the study conducted by Glanzer and Cunitz’s

Answer 22

Primacy Effect (Experiment I)

In the first experiment, people were better at remembering words from the beginning of a list compared to words in the middle.

When the words were shown for a longer time (2 or 3 seconds instead of 1 second), people remembered the words at the beginning and middle of the list better, but it didn’t help much for the last few words.

Showing the words more than once didn’t really help people remember the words at the beginning of the list better than just showing them for a longer time.

Recency Effect (Experiment II)
In the second experiment, people initially remembered words from the end of the list better than words from the middle.

When people had to count numbers for 10 or 30 seconds before trying to remember the words, they had a harder time remembering the words at the end of the list.

Question 23

who suggested the multi store model is “too simplistic”?
what did he suggest as improvement

Answer 23

Tulving suggested there are 3 long term memory stores containing different types of information
procedural
semantic
episodic

Question 24

describe the procedural long-term memory

Answer 24

skills and habits people posses/Usually recalled without making a conscious or deliberate effort.

Question 25

give an example of procedural long term memory

Answer 25

how to ride a bike

Question 26

describe the semantic long term memory

Answer 26

knowledge and facts that need to be recalled deliberately
information organised hierarchal-systematic links between related information.
not time stamped.
Tulving believed this info was less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting than the other types

Question 27

describe the long term episodic memory

Answer 27

personal events that are complex and timestamped made up of several elements such as people and places interwoven. It takes conscious effort to recall.

Question 28

Describe Bower et al and the power of organisation

Answer 28

participants asked to recall a list of 28 organised words instead of no order remembered 47% more words.

CONCLUSION-LTM storage is organised semantically-by meaning

Question 29

Describe Conway et al and his investigation of flashbulb memory in LTM

Answer 29

923 ppts were interviewed about thatcher’s resignation just after the event and then 11 months later

RESULTS-86% had accurate memory of this event which could be considered a flashbulb memory

Question 30

Describe the study of Clive Wearing

Answer 30

Severe amnesia from a viral infection that attacked his brain damaging his hippocampus.

Episodic memory damaged
semantic memories not affected
procedural memories not affected

Question 31

How does Clive Wearing case back up Tulving

Answer 31

evidence backs up Tulving’s view that there are different stores in LTM- one store can be affected while others remain intact

Question 32

real world application of Tulving’s findings

Answer 32

being able to distinguish between different types of LTM enables specific treatment to be developed

Question 33

John Hedges and Patterson

Answer 33

some people with Alzheimer’s disease could form new episodic memories but not semantic meaning episodic and semantic memories are separate

Question 34

what is the working memory model and state its components

Answer 34

It is a representation of short term memory. It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub units co-ordinated by a central decision making system

CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
VISUO-SPATIAL sketchpad
EPISODIC BUFFER
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP

Question 35

Explain the role of the central executive

Answer 35

Co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. It allocates processing resources to each

Question 36

Explain and describe the role of the Phonological loop

Answer 36

Processes information in terms of sound- this includes both written and spoken material it is divided into

Phonological store- temporary storage of verbal material
Articulatory process- maintenance rehearsal of verbal material

Question 37

Describe the Visuo spatial sketchpad

Answer 37

processes visual and spatial information in a mental space .

Robert Logie subdivided VSS into:
Visual cache-stores visual data
Inner scribe-records arrangement of objects in the visual field

Question 38

Research supporting the idea of a central executive

Answer 38

D’Esposito

found that the prefrontal cortex was activated when a person was doing both verbal and visual tasks not only one

Question 39

Describe the purpose of episodic buffers in working memory

Answer 39

integrates info processed in the other subsystems and links with LTM

Question 40

Case study backing up the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores

Answer 40

Tim Shallice and Elizabeth Warrington study of KF
After a brain injury KF had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual info (eg. digits and letters).KF’s phonological loop was damaged but his visuo sketchpad was intact

Question 41

Counter point against Case studies when studying memory

Answer 41

Researcher cannot be sure of other cognitive impairments which may affect performance in tests

Question 42

What component of WMM challenges the models validity

Answer 42

CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

Question 42

State the coding and capacity of Phonological Loop

Answer 42

Coding -Acoustic
Capacity -what can be said in 2 seconds

Question 42

Outline the results of Baddley’s dual performance experiments

Answer 42

visual and verbal task performed
When done at the same time performance on each was similar
BUT when both tasks were visual the performance on both declined

this is because both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem (VSS)

This shows there must be separate subsystems

Question 42

validity of working memory model in Lab experiments

Answer 42

They use artificial materials that do not reflect how we use our memories in real life

Question 42

Interference occurs when two pieces of information ____________ each other and either one or both pieces of information end up being ___________

Answer 42

Interference occurs when two pieces of information disrupt each other and either one or both pieces of information end up being forgotten.

Question 42

Baddeley research on word length relating to the Phonological Loop

Answer 42

5 Multi syllable words, 5 one syllable words

participants were able to recall the short words better suggesting the capacity of the phonological loop is set by how long it takes to say words rather than the number of them.

Question 42

State the coding and the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 42

coding= coded visually
capacity= 3-4 objects

Question 43

forgetting in LTM can be explained by _________

Answer 43

forgetting in LTM can be explained by interference

Question 43

Vogel’s procedure testing the capacity of the Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 43

participants were show displays with 3-13 objects and asked to judge if the image was identical or different.

Performance declined after 4 objects

Question 44

identify and describe the types of interference

Answer 44

PROACTIVE interference—->older memory interferes with a newer one

RETROACTIVE interference—->newer memory interferes with an older one

Question 44

Describe the procedure McGeoch and McDonald used in relation to effects of similarity and forgetting

Answer 44

Participants were asked to remember a list of words at 100% accuracy.

Then they were asked to remember new words…

Those ppts who had similar words to the originals recalled the original list less accurately showing that interference is strongest when memories are similar

Question 44

Outline Baddeley and Hitch’s real world application of interference

Answer 44

asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against during the rugby season.

Players who played most games had the poorest recall since there was more interference

This real world application increases the validity of the theory

Question 44

Outline the research on Interference and cues conducted by Tulving and Psotka

Answer 44

Gave participants lists of words to remember-organised into categories.

As more lists were given recall became progressively worse due to proactive interference.
Words still available in LTM. When given a cue recall rose to 70%

this shows interference causes temporary loss of accessibility to material

Question 44

an explanation for forgetting where information stored in memory is difficult to recall as there are no cues….

Answer 44

retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Question 44

Context dependent forgetting is . . .

Answer 44

when recall depends on external cues being present

for example if you visit the same beach you always go to you are most likely to remember fond childhood memories at that beach when visiting

Question 45

state dependent forgetting is . . .

Answer 45

recall dependent on internal cues being present

for example if someone learns info drunk they are more likely to remember it when they are drunk again

Question 46

Describe the encoding specificity principle proposed by Tulving

Answer 46

states that if a cue that is going to be helpful has to be present at encoding and at retrieval.

Question 47

Describe the procedure by Godden and Baddeley

Answer 47

deep sea divers. Divers learned a list of words on either land or under water. When asked to recall in different environment to the one of learning the accurate recall was 40% lower

Question 47

Carter and Cassaday study on state dependant forgetting

Answer 47

participants given antihistamine drugs (side effect drowsy) asked to remember a list of words.

in conditions where there was a mismatch between the internal state at learning and recall performance on memory test was worse

Question 48

define eye witness testimony

Answer 48

ability of people to remember the details of an event such as incidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed

Question 49

define leading questions

Answer 49

a question that is phrased in a way to suggest a certain answer

Question 50

Outline Loftus and Palmers experiment 1

Answer 50

AIM- experiment the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

45 American students divided into 5 groups of 9 and told the study was about measuring their ability to estimate the speed of vehicles

“how fast did the cars smash/collide/hit/bumped”

estimated speed was affected by the verb used which shows the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading questions

Question 51

Outline Loftus and Palmers 2nd experiment on accuracy of eyewitness testimonies

Answer 51

150 American students divided into 3 even groups watched a video of a car crash.
asked about speed using the verb smashed or hit.

one week later they were called in and asked if there was broken glass those who were asked using the smash verb said glass was seen.

this shows how leading questions affect the memory of EWT

Question 52

identify the 2 ways leading questions a affect eyewitness testimony

Answer 52

Response bias explanation—->wording of question has no real effect on the persons memory it simply influences how they decide to answer

substitution explanation—->wording of question does influence memory

Question 53

Define post event discussion

Answer 53

when there is more than one witness at an event , the witnesses may discuss what they have seen with each other

Question 54

Outline Gabbert et al research on post event discussion

Answer 54

60 students from uni of aberdeen and 60 older adults
pairs- each participant in a pair watched a different clip but they were told they watched the same one
they then discussed what they saw and then individually completed a questionnaire to test recall.

71% of participants recalled aspects they did not actually see in the video but heard during the discussion instead.

shows that witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witness is correct (memory conformity)

Question 55

define anxiety

Answer 55

feeling of unease , such as worried thoughts or fear. It can also include physical changes such as increased heart rate

Question 56

Describe the weapon focus effect and how this means anxiety has a negative effect on recall

Answer 56

During violent crimes the witnesses may focus their attention on more central details of the attack-the weapon- than the more peripheral details such as what was going on and what the perpetrator was wearing

Question 57

Outline the study conducted by Johnson and Scott on Anxiety

Answer 57

Independent group design in Lab experiment aiming to see if anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT.
Ppts made to wait in reception from which a receptionist excused herself.

1- no weapon condition- ppts overheard a conversation in the lab about equipment failure. Following this an individual passed by the ppt holding a pen with grease covered hands.

2- weapon condition- ppts overheard heated convo and the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs. Followed by an individual running into the reception area holding a bloodied letter opener.

Groups shown 50 pics and were asked to identify the person who left the Lab.

condition 1- identified correctly 49% of the time.
condition 2- identified correctly 33% of the time.

Question 58

Explain how anxiety may have positive effects on recall

Answer 58

Stress of witnessing a crime creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body

The Fight or Flight response is triggered which increases our alertness and improves our memory of the event because we are more aware of cues in the situation.

(e.g pupils dilate letting in more light increasing the amount of visual information being registered)

Question 59

Research conducted by Yuille and ________ of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada.

Answer 59

Research conducted by Yuille and Cutshall of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada. The shop owner shot a thief dead.

21 witnesses- 13 agreed to take part in study. Interviews were conducted 4-5 months after the incident and then compared to the original police interviews at the time of the incident.

Witnesses were also asked to rate stress levels at the time of the incident of a 7 point scale.

Findings showed accounts were mostly accurate. Those who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate in their recall of events

THEREFORE- anxiety can have a positive effect on recall

Question 60

AO3 Evaluation of Yuille and Cutshall’s experiment

Answer 60

Bias from post event discussion, news reports seen during the 4-5 month period could have influenced memories

7 point scale is subjective

sample is small- cannot be generalised.

questionnaire- possible investigator effects

Question 61

Describe the inverted U theory

Answer 61

Shows the relationship between arousal and performance. Lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy. Memory becomes more accurate as anxiety increases, however once the optimal level of arousal is reached any more anxiety will reduce the accuracy of recall

Question 62

Outline the procedure conducted by Valentine and Jan Mesout

Answer 62

Quasi experiment conducted in the Horror Labyrinth at the London Dungeon. Visitors were offered a reduced entry offer if they participated

At the end of the visit they completed questionnaires to asses their level of self-reported anxiety.

Wore wireless heart monitors to confirm they were experiencing anxiety.

Ppts were then separated into 2 conditions HIGH and LOW anxiety.
Ppts task was to describe a person they had encountered in the Labyrinth .HIGH anxiety ppts recalled the fewest correct details.

17% of HIGH anxiety recalled correctly while 75% accurate in LOW

Question 63

Geilselman et al

Answer 63

believed eye witness testimony could be improved by using psychological insight on how memory works

Question 64

Describe the Cognitive Interview: Mental _________ of original context

Answer 64

Mental Reinstation of original context.
This interview encourages the witness to mentally recreate both the physical and psychological environment of the original incident.

Question 65

Describe the Cognitive Interview: Report Everything

Answer 65

This interview encourages the reporting of every single detail of the event without editing anything out even if they believe it to be insignificant/irrelevant.

Question 66

Describe the Cognitive Interview: Change Order

Answer 66

The interviewer may try to alternate the timeline of the incident for example reversing the order they happened. This is done because schemas can influence the recollection of past events (Bartlet).