MEMORY Flashcards
Define short term memory
the limited capacity memory store
define long term memory
the permanent memory store
Define coding of memory
the format in which memories are stored in the memory stores
define capacity
the amount of information that can be held in a memory store
define duration
the length of time information can be held in memory for
The multi store model was created by….
Shiffrin and Atkinson
Describe how the multi store model works
stimuli from the environment passes into the sensory register(this has several registers one for each of our 5 senses)
the store coding for visual images is….. while the store coding for sound is…
iconic-visual images
echoic/acoustic-sounds
state the
CAPACITY
DURATION
CODING
of the SENSORY REGISTER
CAPACITY= large
DURATION= brief-fades from store really quickly
CODING= memory is held in the same sense it is registered
state the
CAPACITY
DURATION
CODING
of SHORT TERM MEMORY
CAPACITY=7+-2 (5-9 items)
DURATION=if rehearsed can be transferred into LTM if 30 secs have not passed
CODING=holds information coming from sensory memory acoustically
how can you improve the capacity of short term memory
by chunking information together
state the
CAPACITY
DURATION
CODING
of LONG TERM MEMORY
CAPACITY= unlimited
DURATION= lasts from mins up to a lifetime
CODING= can store memory in a number of forms largely abstract/semantic
describe the study conducted on Henry Molaison
HM underwent brain surgery where parts of his hippocampus were removed.
When HM’s memory was assessed he had little recall of the operation and couldn’t form any new long term memories.
He scored well on tests of immediate memory span.
***this can be used as supporting evidence for the multi store model as it shows short term and long term memory are separate.
identify research conducted on coding and its results
Baddeley- looked at recall of similar/dissimilar words
results=STM coded acoustically. LTM coded semantically
Evaluation of Baddeley’s study on coding
S
+helped development of MSM as it suggested LTM and STM are separate
L
-artificial stimuli
research on capacity and findings
Miller-looked at previous studies conducted a meta analysis of studies using the digit span technique
Results= capacity of STM is 7+-2, but it can be increased by chunking
Evaluation of Miller’s research on capacity
S
+replicated by other psychological research demonstrating validity of his findings
L
-Cowan suggested Miller overestimated STM and thinks capacity is actually 4+-1 items
Research on duration of STM and its findings
Peterson and Peterson= tested the recall of trigrams after having to count down from a 3 digit number for varying intervals
Results= as interval for counting decreased ,accuracy of recall increased.
Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson’s research on the duration of STM
S
+lab study and therefore high control on variables
L
-Artificial stimuli therefore results lack external validity
Research on the duration of LTM and its findings
Bahrick et al= Ppts tested on their recall of those they graduated with.
they either had to:
- match names to faces
- free recall
Results= participants were more accurate when having to match names to faces than free recall. Across both groups recall declined from 15 yrs to 45 yrs after grad.
LTM may last for up to a lifetime for some info.
Evaluation for duration of LTM research
S
+ high levels of ecological validity as the study used real life memories
L
-unclear as to whether long term memory becomes less accurate over time because of limited duration
describe the study conducted by Glanzer and Cunitz’s
Primacy Effect (Experiment I)
In the first experiment, people were better at remembering words from the beginning of a list compared to words in the middle.
When the words were shown for a longer time (2 or 3 seconds instead of 1 second), people remembered the words at the beginning and middle of the list better, but it didn’t help much for the last few words.
Showing the words more than once didn’t really help people remember the words at the beginning of the list better than just showing them for a longer time.
Recency Effect (Experiment II)
In the second experiment, people initially remembered words from the end of the list better than words from the middle.
When people had to count numbers for 10 or 30 seconds before trying to remember the words, they had a harder time remembering the words at the end of the list.
who suggested the multi store model is “too simplistic”?
what did he suggest as improvement
Tulving suggested there are 3 long term memory stores containing different types of information
procedural
semantic
episodic
describe the procedural long-term memory
skills and habits people posses/Usually recalled without making a conscious or deliberate effort.
give an example of procedural long term memory
how to ride a bike
describe the semantic long term memory
knowledge and facts that need to be recalled deliberately
information organised hierarchal-systematic links between related information.
not time stamped.
Tulving believed this info was less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting than the other types
describe the long term episodic memory
personal events that are complex and timestamped made up of several elements such as people and places interwoven. It takes conscious effort to recall.
Describe Bower et al and the power of organisation
participants asked to recall a list of 28 organised words instead of no order remembered 47% more words.
CONCLUSION-LTM storage is organised semantically-by meaning
Describe Conway et al and his investigation of flashbulb memory in LTM
923 ppts were interviewed about thatcher’s resignation just after the event and then 11 months later
RESULTS-86% had accurate memory of this event which could be considered a flashbulb memory
Describe the study of Clive Wearing
Severe amnesia from a viral infection that attacked his brain damaging his hippocampus.
Episodic memory damaged
semantic memories not affected
procedural memories not affected
How does Clive Wearing case back up Tulving
evidence backs up Tulving’s view that there are different stores in LTM- one store can be affected while others remain intact
real world application of Tulving’s findings
being able to distinguish between different types of LTM enables specific treatment to be developed
John Hedges and Patterson
some people with Alzheimer’s disease could form new episodic memories but not semantic meaning episodic and semantic memories are separate
what is the working memory model and state its components
It is a representation of short term memory. It suggests that STM is a dynamic processor of different types of information using sub units co-ordinated by a central decision making system
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
VISUO-SPATIAL sketchpad
EPISODIC BUFFER
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
Explain the role of the central executive
Co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in memory. It allocates processing resources to each
Explain and describe the role of the Phonological loop
Processes information in terms of sound- this includes both written and spoken material it is divided into
Phonological store- temporary storage of verbal material
Articulatory process- maintenance rehearsal of verbal material
Describe the Visuo spatial sketchpad
processes visual and spatial information in a mental space .
Robert Logie subdivided VSS into:
Visual cache-stores visual data
Inner scribe-records arrangement of objects in the visual field
Research supporting the idea of a central executive
D’Esposito
found that the prefrontal cortex was activated when a person was doing both verbal and visual tasks not only one
Describe the purpose of episodic buffers in working memory
integrates info processed in the other subsystems and links with LTM
Case study backing up the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores
Tim Shallice and Elizabeth Warrington study of KF
After a brain injury KF had poor STM ability for auditory information but could process visual info (eg. digits and letters).KF’s phonological loop was damaged but his visuo sketchpad was intact
Counter point against Case studies when studying memory
Researcher cannot be sure of other cognitive impairments which may affect performance in tests
What component of WMM challenges the models validity
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
State the coding and capacity of Phonological Loop
Coding -Acoustic
Capacity -what can be said in 2 seconds
Outline the results of Baddley’s dual performance experiments
visual and verbal task performed
When done at the same time performance on each was similar
BUT when both tasks were visual the performance on both declined
this is because both visual tasks compete for the same subsystem (VSS)
This shows there must be separate subsystems
validity of working memory model in Lab experiments
They use artificial materials that do not reflect how we use our memories in real life
Interference occurs when two pieces of information ____________ each other and either one or both pieces of information end up being ___________
Interference occurs when two pieces of information disrupt each other and either one or both pieces of information end up being forgotten.
Baddeley research on word length relating to the Phonological Loop
5 Multi syllable words, 5 one syllable words
participants were able to recall the short words better suggesting the capacity of the phonological loop is set by how long it takes to say words rather than the number of them.
State the coding and the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad
coding= coded visually
capacity= 3-4 objects
forgetting in LTM can be explained by _________
forgetting in LTM can be explained by interference
Vogel’s procedure testing the capacity of the Visuo-spatial sketchpad
participants were show displays with 3-13 objects and asked to judge if the image was identical or different.
Performance declined after 4 objects
identify and describe the types of interference
PROACTIVE interference—->older memory interferes with a newer one
RETROACTIVE interference—->newer memory interferes with an older one
Describe the procedure McGeoch and McDonald used in relation to effects of similarity and forgetting
Participants were asked to remember a list of words at 100% accuracy.
Then they were asked to remember new words…
Those ppts who had similar words to the originals recalled the original list less accurately showing that interference is strongest when memories are similar
Outline Baddeley and Hitch’s real world application of interference
asked rugby players to recall the names of the teams they had played against during the rugby season.
Players who played most games had the poorest recall since there was more interference
This real world application increases the validity of the theory
Outline the research on Interference and cues conducted by Tulving and Psotka
Gave participants lists of words to remember-organised into categories.
As more lists were given recall became progressively worse due to proactive interference.
Words still available in LTM. When given a cue recall rose to 70%
this shows interference causes temporary loss of accessibility to material
an explanation for forgetting where information stored in memory is difficult to recall as there are no cues….
retrieval failure due to absence of cues
Context dependent forgetting is . . .
when recall depends on external cues being present
for example if you visit the same beach you always go to you are most likely to remember fond childhood memories at that beach when visiting
state dependent forgetting is . . .
recall dependent on internal cues being present
for example if someone learns info drunk they are more likely to remember it when they are drunk again
Describe the encoding specificity principle proposed by Tulving
states that if a cue that is going to be helpful has to be present at encoding and at retrieval.
Describe the procedure by Godden and Baddeley
deep sea divers. Divers learned a list of words on either land or under water. When asked to recall in different environment to the one of learning the accurate recall was 40% lower
Carter and Cassaday study on state dependant forgetting
participants given antihistamine drugs (side effect drowsy) asked to remember a list of words.
in conditions where there was a mismatch between the internal state at learning and recall performance on memory test was worse
define eye witness testimony
ability of people to remember the details of an event such as incidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed
define leading questions
a question that is phrased in a way to suggest a certain answer
Outline Loftus and Palmers experiment 1
AIM- experiment the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
45 American students divided into 5 groups of 9 and told the study was about measuring their ability to estimate the speed of vehicles
“how fast did the cars smash/collide/hit/bumped”
estimated speed was affected by the verb used which shows the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading questions
Outline Loftus and Palmers 2nd experiment on accuracy of eyewitness testimonies
150 American students divided into 3 even groups watched a video of a car crash.
asked about speed using the verb smashed or hit.
one week later they were called in and asked if there was broken glass those who were asked using the smash verb said glass was seen.
this shows how leading questions affect the memory of EWT
identify the 2 ways leading questions a affect eyewitness testimony
Response bias explanation—->wording of question has no real effect on the persons memory it simply influences how they decide to answer
substitution explanation—->wording of question does influence memory
Define post event discussion
when there is more than one witness at an event , the witnesses may discuss what they have seen with each other
Outline Gabbert et al research on post event discussion
60 students from uni of aberdeen and 60 older adults
pairs- each participant in a pair watched a different clip but they were told they watched the same one
they then discussed what they saw and then individually completed a questionnaire to test recall.
71% of participants recalled aspects they did not actually see in the video but heard during the discussion instead.
shows that witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they believe the other witness is correct (memory conformity)
define anxiety
feeling of unease , such as worried thoughts or fear. It can also include physical changes such as increased heart rate
Describe the weapon focus effect and how this means anxiety has a negative effect on recall
During violent crimes the witnesses may focus their attention on more central details of the attack-the weapon- than the more peripheral details such as what was going on and what the perpetrator was wearing
Outline the study conducted by Johnson and Scott on Anxiety
Independent group design in Lab experiment aiming to see if anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT.
Ppts made to wait in reception from which a receptionist excused herself.
1- no weapon condition- ppts overheard a conversation in the lab about equipment failure. Following this an individual passed by the ppt holding a pen with grease covered hands.
2- weapon condition- ppts overheard heated convo and the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs. Followed by an individual running into the reception area holding a bloodied letter opener.
Groups shown 50 pics and were asked to identify the person who left the Lab.
condition 1- identified correctly 49% of the time.
condition 2- identified correctly 33% of the time.
Explain how anxiety may have positive effects on recall
Stress of witnessing a crime creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body
The Fight or Flight response is triggered which increases our alertness and improves our memory of the event because we are more aware of cues in the situation.
(e.g pupils dilate letting in more light increasing the amount of visual information being registered)
Research conducted by Yuille and ________ of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada.
Research conducted by Yuille and Cutshall of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Canada. The shop owner shot a thief dead.
21 witnesses- 13 agreed to take part in study. Interviews were conducted 4-5 months after the incident and then compared to the original police interviews at the time of the incident.
Witnesses were also asked to rate stress levels at the time of the incident of a 7 point scale.
Findings showed accounts were mostly accurate. Those who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate in their recall of events
THEREFORE- anxiety can have a positive effect on recall
AO3 Evaluation of Yuille and Cutshall’s experiment
Bias from post event discussion, news reports seen during the 4-5 month period could have influenced memories
7 point scale is subjective
sample is small- cannot be generalised.
questionnaire- possible investigator effects
Describe the inverted U theory
Shows the relationship between arousal and performance. Lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy. Memory becomes more accurate as anxiety increases, however once the optimal level of arousal is reached any more anxiety will reduce the accuracy of recall
Outline the procedure conducted by Valentine and Jan Mesout
Quasi experiment conducted in the Horror Labyrinth at the London Dungeon. Visitors were offered a reduced entry offer if they participated
At the end of the visit they completed questionnaires to asses their level of self-reported anxiety.
Wore wireless heart monitors to confirm they were experiencing anxiety.
Ppts were then separated into 2 conditions HIGH and LOW anxiety.
Ppts task was to describe a person they had encountered in the Labyrinth .HIGH anxiety ppts recalled the fewest correct details.
17% of HIGH anxiety recalled correctly while 75% accurate in LOW
Geilselman et al
believed eye witness testimony could be improved by using psychological insight on how memory works
Describe the Cognitive Interview: Mental _________ of original context
Mental Reinstation of original context.
This interview encourages the witness to mentally recreate both the physical and psychological environment of the original incident.
Describe the Cognitive Interview: Report Everything
This interview encourages the reporting of every single detail of the event without editing anything out even if they believe it to be insignificant/irrelevant.
Describe the Cognitive Interview: Change Order
The interviewer may try to alternate the timeline of the incident for example reversing the order they happened. This is done because schemas can influence the recollection of past events (Bartlet).
