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Research Methods Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

POSITIVISM

What are social facts?

A
  • Positivists believe that there are external social forces making up a society’s social structure that cause or mould people’s ideas and actions.
  • These are called social facts.
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2
Q

POSITIVISM

What do positivists believe about social institutions?

A
  • Positivists believe social institutions influence people’s behaviour with social control making individuals behave in socially approved ways.
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3
Q

POSITIVISM

What does Durkheim say the study of sociology should be about?

A
  • Durkheim said the study of sociology should be the study of social facts and that these could, in most cases, be observed and measured quantitatively.
  • The feelings, emotions and motives of individuals cannot be observed or measured and should therefore not be studied.
  • These feelings are the result of social facts such as the influences of socialisation anyway.
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4
Q

POSITIVISM

What data do positivists believe needs to be collected, and why?

A
  • Positivists believe that quantitative data needs to be collected for sociology to be seen as a science and for studies to be repeated to check findings, establish the causes of social events or make generalisations.
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5
Q

POSITIVISM

What methods of collecting data do positivists use?

A

Positivists use research methods which collect quantitative data. These are more likely to involve large scale research or a macro approach. These methods include:
 Experiments
 The comparative method
 Surveys
 Structured questionnaires
 Formal/structured interviews
 Non participant observation

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6
Q

POSITIVISM

What are the 4 main beliefs of positivism?

A
  • Behaviour can be observed and measured, as can the causes of behaviour (social facts).
  • Macro approach needed: large scale research.
  • Sociology should use scientific methods because it enables findings to be checked by other researchers and it enables the researchers to be objective/value free.
  • Positivists should use quantitative methods.
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7
Q

INTERPRETIVISM

What do interpretivists believe the role of a researcher is?

A
  • Interpretivists believe that, because people’s behaviour is influenced by the interpretations and meanings they give to social situations, the researcher’s task is to gain an understanding of these interpretations and meanings.
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8
Q

INTERPRETIVISM

What do interpretivists believe the role of research methods is?

A
  • Sociology should therefore use research methods which provide an understanding from the point of view of individuals and groups who are
    being studied.
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9
Q

INTERPRETIVISM

Interpretivists believe there is a need to…

A
  • Interpretivists suggest there is a need to discuss and get personally involved with people in order to understand their interpretations and meanings.
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10
Q

INTERPRETIVISM

What data do interpretivists collect and what methods do they prefer?

A

Interpretivists therefore favour research methods which collect qualitative data. These include:
 Participant and sometimes non participant observation
 Informal/unstructured interviews
 Open questionnaires
 Personal accounts
These tend to involve a micro approach with small scale, in depth research.

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11
Q

INTERPRETIVISM

What are the main 5 beliefs of interpretivism?

A
  • Behaviour is influenced by individual’s interpretations and meanings they give to social situations (internal forces).
  • Important to get personally involved with people being researched to understand their meanings etc. –> gives Verstehen (empathy).
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12
Q

What is methodological pluralism?

A
  • Mix of qual and quan methods
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13
Q

What is triangulation?

A
  • Use results of one method –> check results of another
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14
Q

What is random sampling?

A
  • A sample selected by chance , a large enough sample should represent the population.
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15
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A
  • When every nth person in the sampling frame is selected.
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16
Q

What is stratified random sampling?

A
  • The researcher breaks down the sampling frame by characteristics e.g. age, class, gender.
  • The sample is then created in the same proportions.
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17
Q

What is quota sampling?

A
  • The population is stratified then each interviewer is given a quota which may have to fill will people of that characteristic.
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18
Q

What is multistage/cluster sampling?

A
  • Selecting a sample in stages, choosing a sample from the previous sample. e.g. sample from schools –> list all schools –> sample:schools –> sample:5 tutors –> sample:10 students each.
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19
Q

What is non-representative sampling?

A
  • One specific group
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20
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A
  • Used when a sampling frame is difficult to obtain, the researchers ask their initial participants to introduce each other to the study.
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21
Q

What is opportunity/convenience sampling?

A
  • Choosing from individuals that are easy access.
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22
Q

What is volunteer sampling?

A
  • Advertise for participants, participants volunteer to take part.
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23
Q

SAMPLING

Advantages of simple random sampling

A
  • No bias from researcher
  • Not time consuming
  • Cost effective
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24
Q

What are the disadvantages of simple random sampling?

A
  • No guarantee that it is representative
  • Repeatability
  • Reliability
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25
Q

What are the advantages of systematic sampling?

A
  • No bias from researcher
  • Quick, no skills needed
  • Repeatable
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26
Q

What are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?

A
  • No guarantee that it is representative
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27
Q

What are the advantages of stratified sampling?

A
  • Representative
  • No bias
  • Repeatable (similar samples each time)
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28
Q

What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?

A
  • Less practical
  • Might get the categories wrong, the sampling frame must always categorise the data for the researcher but this is not guaranteed
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29
Q

What are the advantages of quota sampling?

A
  • Representative
  • Repeatable
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30
Q

What are the disadvantages of quota sampling?

A
  • Researcher bias
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31
Q

What are the advantages of snowball sampling?

A
  • Quicker than trying to find them themselves (as they are in hard to find groups)
  • More likely to find willing participants
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32
Q

What are the disadvantages of snowball sampling?

A
  • Not representative
  • Not practical
  • Not reliable
  • Unrepeatable —> another researcher might not have the initial contact that you do
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33
Q

What are the advantages of cluster/multistage sampling?

A
  • Fit for purpose —> studying groups needed to study
  • Time efficient
  • Large target population
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34
Q

What are the disadvantages of cluster/multi-stage sampling?

A
  • Not representative
  • No guarantee you can get everyone you need
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35
Q

What are the advantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • Practical
  • Quick
36
Q

What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A
  • Not representative
  • Not reliable
  • Researcher bias (even when unintended)
  • Dependent on people who are there at that time
  • Low response rate
37
Q

What are the advantage of volunteer sampling?

A
  • Practical
  • Really good for sensitive topics
  • High level of detail as they have chosen to take part
38
Q

What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

A
  • Not representative
  • Not reliable
  • Not repeatable
39
Q

What is the theoretical evaluation to statistics?

A
  • Disliked by interpretivists –> Don’t like objective data and there is no meanings to it.
  • Liked by positivists –> Like objective and quantitative data, identifies cause and effect (social facts), macro approach.
40
Q

What is the reliability evaluation to statistics?

A
  • Repeatable –> standardised
  • Consistent –> same method of collection
  • Can be accepted and repeated by another researcher
41
Q

What is the validity evaluation to statistics?

A
  • Identifies trends / patterns overtime.
  • But no explanation provided e.g. why boys are excluded more than girls.
  • Can be interpreted by researchers in ways which affect existing views –> researcher bias.
42
Q

What is the representativeness evaluation to statistics?

A
  • Hard statistics –> every incidence collected
  • Large sample size
43
Q

What is the practical evaluation to statistics?

A
  • Free
  • Easy access
  • Avaliable
44
Q

What is the ethical evaluation to statistics?

A
  • Anonymous
  • Researcher is not in direct contact with participants
45
Q

What is the theoretical evaluation to documents?

A
  • Interpretivism –> qualitative, understand meanings and motivations for behaviour
  • Positivism –> not objective, subject to interpretation of researcher
46
Q

What is the reliability evaluation to documents?

A
  • Not consistent –> may only have access to part of these documents
  • Cannot be standardised –> different documents studied in different ways e.g. handwriting and vocab
  • Not repeatable –> different researchers interpret the documents differently
47
Q

What is the validity evaluation to documents?

A
  • Not going to lie deliberately –> no researcher effect or hawthorne effect
  • In depth –> shows meanings and feelings/behaviour (and reasons for it) –> potential for empathy (Verstehen)
  • Written by somebody else in village sometimes
  • Purpose of the documents being written
  • Elements of bias –> author? purpose?
  • Bias –> interpretation of researcher
48
Q

What is the representativeness evaluation for documents?

A
  • A range of different perspectives and experiences
  • Linked to sample size (good and bad)
  • Unaware of social characteristics of author
  • Historical documents –> only the wealthy could afford to learn to write, have portraits made etc.
49
Q

What is the practical evaluation for documents?

A
  • Time consuming
  • Lack of accessinility –> personal, sensitive information, don’t wamt to give them up
50
Q

What are the three types of questionnaires?

A
  • Precoded or closed questions (answer options provided, tick box)
  • Open ended or open questionnaires (space to write own answers)
  • Postal/mail or online self-completion questionnaires (complete away from researcher and send back)
51
Q

What is the pros of self completion / postal questionnaires?

A
  • No researcher effect —> higher validity, personal information answered privately or anonymously.
  • Social desirability less of a problem —> don’t see the researcher and they are anonymous, less ‘pressure’ from presence of researcher to give socially acceptable answers.
  • Anonymity easier to be maintained —> ethics
52
Q

What is the cons of self completion / postal questionnaires?

A
  • No information about participants —> affects the representativeness as they don’t know who actually responded to the questionnaire.
  • As the researcher isn’t there, they won’t mind not actually refusing or responding resulting in a low response rate.
  • Risk of participants misunderstanding questions, can’t personally ask the researcher —> no opportunity for clarification.
  • Less standardised —> different locations and environments (affects response), when it is completed can affect response.
53
Q

What are the strengths of open questionnaires?

A
  • Liked by interpretivists as the participants can explain things in their own words.
  • High validity —> Verstehen, true picture, deep insight as the explanations and meanings are given in own words.
  • Ethical —> easy to gain consent.
  • Practical —> Quicker overall than other methods, cheap
54
Q

What are the limitations of open questionnaires?

A
  • Disliked by positivists —> prefer objective and quantitative data, not measurable, trends/patterns
  • Low validity —> Social desirability, cannot ask for more information resulting in inaccurate responses as they may misunderstand the questions
  • Low representativeness —> Takes a while to fill out so people may not do them (low response rate = low sample size)
  • High response rate of people with big opinions on the subject, low response rate of those who struggle with education and language.
  • Not ethical —> May be asking sensitive information —> inappropriate for a questionnaire (risk of psychological harm)
  • Not practical —> More time consuming (more time to fill out, more time for researcher to read through)
55
Q

What are the strengths of closed questionnaires?

A
  • Liked by positivism —> quantitative data, quantify results and identify trends/patterns
  • High reliability —> Standardised as same questions used, same answer options, same order, same language (more repeatability)
  • High representativeness —> gain a large group of people’s responses as it will be fast so they won’t mind doing it (higher response rate = bigger sample size)
  • More ethical —> easy to gain consent
  • More practical —> less time consuming (get them done very quickly), cheaper
56
Q

What are the limitations of closed questionnaires?

A
  • Disliked by interpretivists (no reasons or meanings given)
  • Options chosen by researcher, not from the participants perspective
  • Validity —> Researcher bias —> have to make their own interpretations why the results are what they are (may misunderstand), answer options may not cover all options and researcher chooses the options causing bias.
  • Not very ethical —> may ask for sensitive information (risk of psychological harm)
57
Q

What is a structured/formal interview?

A
  • These are very similar to a questionnaire.
  • They use an interview schedule where the interviewer asks exactly the same questions, in the same order in the same tone of voice etc.
58
Q

What is an unstructured/informal interview?

A
  • These are like a conversation.
  • The interviewer has topics in mind to cover but few, if any, pre-set questions.
  • The interviewer can ask any questions, in any order, with different wording etc.
  • They can ask further questions depending on what the respondent says.
59
Q

What is a semi structured interview?

A
  • These have the same questions but the interviewer can ask
    further questions for more information.
60
Q

What is a group interview, and what is a focus group?

A
  • Group interviews are when a number of people are interviewed at the same time.
  • Focus groups are a form of group interview that focus on specific topics.
61
Q

What are the strengths of structured interviews?

A

Strengths:
- Preferred by positivists –> Objective, can be checked (theoretical)
- Reliability –> Standardised –> Other interviewers can interview using same questions and structure and compare the findings
- Reliability –> Consistent questions with every participant –> Can’t deviate from script
- Practical –> Lack of skills or training needed, Less time consuming –> No additional questions –> Representativeness –> Bigger sample size.

62
Q

What are the limitations of structured interviews?

A
  • Disliked by interpretivists –> No room for further questions to get better meanings
  • Ethical –> More risk of psychological harm –> Can’t deviate or change questions based on participants, impersonal
  • Validity –> No verstehen avaliable –> Detached, participants cannot elaborate on answers, questions reflect the researchers views and what they see as important
63
Q

What are the strengths of focus groups?

A
  • Participants can develop answers off other participants.
  • Practical –> Less time consuming –> interviewing a group at once –> larger sample size –> include a wider range of characteristics, consider a range of views –> Representativeness
  • Validity –> Can check if the views are widely shared
64
Q

What are the limitations of focus groups?

A
  • Pressure can be felt on some of the participants to feel like they have to go along with the group
  • Validity –> Difficult to manage –> can go off topic
  • Representativeness –> Some members dominate
  • Validity –> Others agree with dominant members –> Social desirability –> people don’t want to express inpopular news infront of others
  • Ethical –> Inappropriate for sensitive topics
65
Q

What did Ann Oakleys research study include?

A

ANN OAKLEY: “Becoming a Mother”
- Feminists, like Oakley, see structured interviews as detached, objective and the scientific nature of them as oppressive and patriarchal, they prefer unstructured interviews.
- Conducted 178 interviews with most the women being interviewed twice before the birth of their child and twice afterwards. In some cases, she was present at the birth.
- Each woman was interviewed for a total of 9 hours on average.
- She found that the women often wanted to ask her questions, Oakley decided to answer the questions as openly and honestly as possible, sometimes even discussing her own experiences of childbirth.
- She also helped out with childcare or housework whilst interviewing.
- Some women anted to help out more and would ring Oakley with other pieces of information they seemed necessary.
- This approach to her research allowed her to get closer to the people she was interviewing.

66
Q

What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?

A
  • Liked by interpretivists –> Get more details and meanings, able to empathise (Verstehen) and get a true picture –> Allowed to elaborate and ask/prompt more questions reducing social desirability.
  • Validity –> Can build a rapport (Verstehen) –> Reducing social desirability
  • Ethical –> Less psychological harm caused –> Allows women to talk about their experiences of childbirth at own pace –> Very sensitive topic –> Ability to change questioning –> Easy to gain consent
  • Accuracy –> feel more comfortable with Oakley therefore could be more likely to tell the truth, feel comfortable enough to open up as it is like a conversation.
67
Q

What are the limitations of unstructured interviews?

A
  • Reliability –> Cannot be standardised, therefore cannot be repeated by other researchers –> inconsistent –> every mother interviewed differently and asked different questions.
  • Disliked by positivists –> cannot be compared or checked, not objective.
  • Validity –> More chance of researcher effect taking place –> body language and tone less likely to be controlled.
  • Representativeness –> Lack of generalisability –> Only around 55 mothers interviewed, doesn’t represent every mother –> Small sample as it is time consuming.
  • Practical –> Time consuming –> Oakley interviewed every mother herself individually –> the interviewers need training; need skills to build rapport.
  • Validity –> Social desirability –> Oakley is older and more experienced.
68
Q

What is a non-participant observation?

A
  • The researcher observes the group without taking part.
69
Q

What is a participant observation?

A
  • The researcher takes part in the everyday life of the group
    while observing.
70
Q

What is an overt observation?

A
  • The researcher makes it clear to the people they are studying that
    they are observing them.
71
Q

What is a covert observation?

A
  • The researcher doesn’t inform the people they are studying that
    they are observing them.
72
Q

What are the three main issues with a participant observation?

A
  • Getting in: Overt/Covert, need to make contact with the group and then trust which depends on personal skills.
  • Staying in: Note taking may disrupt groups behaviour, problems with how close to get with group, how to not lose trust, researchers objectivity, illegal behaviour to stay in group, danger of going native, researcher may not notice things about the group as longer the spend with them, more chance of it seeming normal.
  • Getting out: Issues with leaving the group without damaging relationships, becoming sufficiently detached to write an impartial account and making sure members of the group cannot be identified.
73
Q

What are the strengths of participant observations?

A
  • Theoretical –> Liked by interpretivists –> Can understand the meanings and motivations.
  • Ecological validity –> Natural environment –> Can behave normally
  • Led by the participants and respond to this
  • Validity –> Gain Verstehen –> Experiencing same things
    –> Can build rapport / trust with participants –> behave normally (less Hawthorne effect and social desireability)
74
Q

What are the disadvantages of participants observations?

A
  • Reliability –> Not repeatable –> Not standardised
  • Validity –> Presence of researcher can lead to the hawthorne effect
  • Theoretical and Validity –> Risk of going ‘native’ –> Researcher bias –> Sympathetic to group (not objective) –> Positivism, cannot repeat or check
  • Practical –> Difficult to notetake –> May forget things
  • Unrepresentative –> Difficult to access multiple groups/settings –> Smaller sample as it is time consuming
  • Ethical –> If covert –> No consent, Researchers may have to engage in illegal acts
74
Q

What are the strengths of a non participants observation?

A
  • Easier to maintain anonymity
  • Less likely to be at risk of harm –> Not involved
  • More repeatable and standardised –> Easier to use observation schedule
  • Easier to record observations –> Less likely to forget = accurate
  • Less time consuming –> More observations –> Large sample = More representative
  • More objective –> Less bias –> Less risk of going native
74
Q

What are the disadvantages of a non participants observation?

A
  • Validity –> Difficult to gain a deeper sympathetic understanding –> No verstehen (detached)
  • Validity –> Social desirability/Hawthorne effect –> Harder to hide observation
  • Difficult to observe information –> Easy to miss information
  • Validity –> Detached –> May interpret what observed differently/in line with own views –> Researcher bias
75
Q

What are the strengths of an overt observation?

A
  • Ethical –> Easier to gain consent –> No deception
  • Practical –> Less time consuming –> No trust/rapport needed
  • Validity –> Easier to record observations –> More accurate
  • Practical –> Easier for accessible groups
76
Q

What are the strengths of a covert observation?

A
  • Validity –> People unaware they are being studied –> Behave as they normally would –> Less Hawthorne effect, social desirability
  • Gain more insight –> Participants may be more open
  • Validity and Theoretical –> Adopt a role –> Gain Verstehen –> Interpretivism –> Understand meanings/motivations
77
Q

What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?

A
  • Theoretical –> Liked by positivists as they are a scientific method that enables them to develop cause and effect relationships.
  • Reliability –> Can be replicated so they are highly repeatable –> the other researcher can specify precisely what steps were followed, so others can repeat these in the future. A detached method, the researchers feelings and opinions have no effect on the conduct or outcome of the experiment.
78
Q

What are the weaknesses of a lab experiment?

A
  • Theoretical –> Disliked by interpretivists –> Argue humans are fundamentally different from plants which are studied by natural scientists. We have free will unlike these objects, meaning our behaviour cannot be explained in terms of cause and effect.
  • Validity –> A laboratory is not a normal or natural environment. It is therefore likely that any behaviour in these conditions is also unnatural or artificial.
  • Validity –> If people know that they are being studied, they may act differently.
  • Validity –> It may be difficult to identify one variable which causes a social issue/behaviour.
  • Ethics –> It may be difficult to get the informed consent of groups such as children or people with learning difficulties who may be unable to understand the nature and purpose of the experiment. –> Experiments cause harm, especially to those in the experimental group.
79
Q

What is a field experiment? What are the advantages and disadvantages?

A
  • Experiments that take place in the real world under normal social conditions, but following similar procedures to the laboratory experiment.
  • They have similar advantages and disadvantages to the laboratory experiment, such as they may involve the researcher misleading the participants.
  • Field experiments have mainly been carried out by interpretivists.
80
Q

Name and describe two examples of experiments

A
  • Rosenthal and Jacobsen ‘Pygmalion in the Classroom’: investigated whether
    teachers expectations affect pupils’ educational performance. Pupils were given an IQ test at the beginning and end of the process and there was a ‘control’ group of pupils who hadn’t been labelled positively so progress could be compared. This experiment has been repeated with many similar results. However there are ethical issues with experimenting on children and interfering with their education.
  • Bandura ‘Social Learning through Imitation’: has been criticised for being unable to generalise findings from an unrepresentative group of children; ethical issues about training children to act aggressively; and whether the children were being aggressive or just playing with the doll the way they had been shown by the adults. The main criticism is that it was in an unrealistic environment and that may make the results invalid.
81
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A
  • A longitudinal study selects a sample from whom data is collected by repeated surveys at regular intervals over a period of years. Each of these surveys is sometimes referred to as a ‘wave’ or ‘sweep’.
  • These studies make it possible to study change over time and provide details on the changes that occur. As long as the sample remains the same, it may be possible to discover the causes of changes by comparing earlier studies with later ones.
82
Q

What are the problems with longitudinal studies?

A
  • It is necessary to select a sample who are available and willing to assist over a long period of time.
  • It is likely the original sample size will decrease.
  • Those in the sample are conscious of the fact they are being studied. This may result in the Hawthorne effect.
  • Most funding agencies are unwilling to take on a commitment over a long period of time.
83
Q

What are case studies?

A
  • This involves the intensive study of a single example of whatever it is the sociologist wishes to investigate. They can be carried out using almost any research method, though the more qualitative methods are more common.
  • Life histories are case studies which usually focus on one individual or one small group. They are most commonly obtained through unstructured interviews backed up with reference to personal documents such as diaries and letters.
  • Case studies and life histories do not claim to be representative. However, some researchers claim they can make an important contribution to our knowledge about an area and theories, for example, can be tested.
  • They may be useful in generating new hypotheses which can then be tested by further research.
  • They enable the researcher to see the world from the point of view of the individual and give more detail and understanding than surveys or quantitative measurements.
84
Q

What are the problems with case studies?

A
  • They may not be representative.
  • They may not be reliable or valid.
  • Life histories raise questions about the accuracy of recall of facts and the benefit of hindsight may generate a reinterpretation of the past.

Sociology (23 decks)

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