Research Methods Flashcards
What are all the different types of research methods?
Experiments, questionnaires,observations, official statistics and documents.
What research methods are primary sources of data?
Experiments and observations, interviews, questionannaires.
What research methods are secondary sources of data?
Official statistics, documents.
What is the positivists view in terms of research methods?
measurable, objective social reality that exists, like the physical world. Our behaviour is a result of social forces shaping what we do. Aim of their research is to discover the underlying causes of our behaviour. Reliable and representative data.
What type of data is obtained by positivists?
Reliable and representative quantitative data.
What is the interpretivists view in terms of research methods?
no objective social reality, just subjective meanings that social actors give to events. Research uncovers actors meanings or worldview.
What type of data is produced by interpretivists?
Valid, qualitative data.
How would a research method be reliable?
For a method to be reliable it must be replicable. Uses standardised forms of measurement.
What type of sociologists prefer reliable data?
Positivists. This is because they prefer a scientific approach that can be repeated.
How can we make data representative?
Through studying a small sample of a group you are studying. The characteristics of this small sample need to reflect those of the wider group. The sociologist will then make generalisations on the basis of the evidence from the sample.
What type of sociologists prefer data to be representatives?
Positivists emphasis representativeness as they wish to discover general patterns about social behaviour.
What is validity?
Refers to how authentic and true the data is
What sociologists prefer valid data?
Interpretivists, prefer unstructured so that they can develop true answers
What’s the difference between validity and reliability?
Validity is a true account of people’s meanings whilst realibility involves measuring a standardised way that can be repeated. Methods that are strong on validity are usually weak on reliability and vice versa.
What are all of the different types of sampling?
Random sampling, stratified,quota,snowballing,opportunity and qasis random/systematic.
What is random sampling?
Where each person has an equal chance of being selected. For example a random generator.
What is stratified sampling?
When the sampling frame is divided into subcategories that the researcher is interested in such as gender age and class. And then a certain number of people are randomly selected from each of these subcategories.
What is quota sampling?
Like stratified sampling but the researcher is given a quota that they need to reach. The researcher may need to find 30 women between ages of 25 and 35 to answer a question and the first 30 women will fill the quota.
What is snowballing sampling?
Used when it is difficult or impossible to obtain a sample of people to research on. It is used when the research is highly sensitive or deals with secretive or deviant groups as individuals may not want or be identified.
What is opportunity sampling?
When the researcher themselves approach who is available and willing to participate.
What is quasi random or systematic sampling?
When people are selected by choosing every Nth name from the sampling frame.
Adavantages and disadvantages of random sampling?
It is unbiased because everyone has an equal chance of being selected. May not be representative because certain subgroups aren’t chosen.
Advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling?
Reduces sampling error as it assumes that all the subgroups of the population are proportionally represented. A weakness is that it is time-consuming to set up.
Advantages and limitations of quota sampling?
It is less time consuming and less expensive. It can lead to a biased sample as the chosen sample may not be representative of the whole population.
Advantages and disadvantages of snowballing sampling?
A strength is that it provides a valuable insight into social groups. A disadvantages is that it relies on a very small network of people who have come through recommendations so data is difficult to evaluate.
Advantages and disadvantages of random sampling?
Quick and practical and it is the easiest and most practical way of finding a sample of participants. It is prone to bias and choosing who is available to take part means that the sample will be unrepresentative of the target population.
Advantages and disadvantages of quasi random or systematic?
It is more evenly spread. Can lead to bias sample as it’s not totally random
What are the 5 main groups and settings in education?
Pupils, teachers, parents, classrooms and schools.
What did Hill in 2005 say are the 3 major differences between studying adults and young people?
Power and status, ability and understanding, vulnerability. These can all be linked to methods in context when a study studies children
Who are the type of people who refuse access to schools from sociologists?
Gatekeepers like headteachers or governors.
What are the characteristics of a lab experiment?
Tightly controlled, artificial environments. Used to see is one variable has an impact on another. Experimental group which is manipulated and a control group that is measured.
What is the reliability like for lab experiments?
Experiments can be replicated exactly again and they should produce the same results every time. Favoured by positivist sociologists. However lack validity.
What are some example of laboratory experiments?
Stanford prison experiment, bandura bobo doll, Milgrams obedience.
Practical issues of lab experiments?
Small samples - can’t generalise. Hawthorne effect from the artificial environment. Possibly the expectancy effect - when what a researcher expects to happen influences the actual outcome.
Ethical issues of laboratory experiments?
Informed consent - need to give informed consent. However, this can be self defeating due to demand characteristics. Harm to subjects - treatment should be made available.
Theoretical issues of lab experiments? (Positivists and interpretivists)
Positivists favour due to reliability. Interpretivists would say lack validity. Cannot be sure these experiments are reflective of wider population - external validity. This is due to Small sample sizes and the high level of control.
How can lab experiments be used in education - methods on context
Teacher expectations, classroom interaction, labelling, pupils self concepts, self-fulfilling prophecy
Characteristics of field experiments
Takes place in subjects natural surroundings, those involved don’t know they are the subjects of an experiment, researcher isolates and manipulates one or more of the variables to see effect on subjects of the experiment.
What are some examples of field experiments?
Brown and Gay (1985) - studied racial discrimination in employment. Sent a white actor and black actor for interviews for the same posts. Subjects were matched in every other way than ethnicity.
Wood et Al (2010) - similar study, sending applications to over 1000 jobs apparently from 3 applications of different ethnicities.
Evaluation of field experiments
- More natural and valid for real life
- Avoids the artificiality of lab experiments
- less control over variables as natural env.
- unethical as subjects have no knowledge or consent.
Characteristics of the comparative method?
Carried out in the mind of the sociologist.
Re qnalyses secondary data
Designed to discover cause and effect relationships.
Identify 2 groups that are alike except for one variable and then compare the 2 groups to see if this one difference has any effect.
Evaluation of the comparative method
- avoids artificially
- used to study past events
- avoids ethical problems of harming or decievinv subjects
- less control than field experiments
What’s a field experiment that is linked to teacher expectations?
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) - pupils given IQ test, teachers then told that these identified 20% of pupils who were likely to spurt. Pupils were actually chosen at random.
Characteristics of questionnaires
Easy way to gather data
Distributed at home or in person.
Use either close ended questions or open ended questions.
What are the 6 advantages of questionnaires?
Practical, reliability, hypothesis testing, detachment and objectivity, representativeness,ethical issues
What are the 7 disadvantages of questionnaires
Practical, low response rate, inflexibility, snapshots, detachment, lying forgetting and right answerism, imposing the researchers meanings.
Practical advantages of questionnaires?
- Quick and cheap way of gathering large amounts of quantitative data from large sample.
- data usually easy to quantify
- cheaper than other methods.
Practical disadvantages of questionnaires
- data can be limited/brief
- offer of incentives adds to cost
- low response rate
-Inflexible - Snapshots
Ethical issues of questionnaires?
- few ethical issues
- not obliged to answer questions
- gain informed consent
Confidentiality easy to guarantee
How can questionnaires be used? (Methods in context)
- subject and university choice
- bullying and the experience of schooling
- achievement and school factors
- parental attitudes to education
What is a structured interviews
It is where each interview is conducted in the same way with exactly the same questions working, order tone etc.
Characteristics of structured interviews
Close ended questions, quantitative data. Social interaction. Many of same strengths and weaknesses as questionnaires
Practical adavantages of structured interviews?
- Can cover large number of people
- easily quantifiable
- training is straightforward and inexpensive
- response rates higher than questionnaires
Practical disadvantages of structured interviews
- Inflexible
- snapshots taken at one moment in time
- unsuitable for studying unfamiliar topics
Ethical issues of structured interviews?
Relatively few:
- social interaction can make the interviewee feel pressures.
- informed consent
- right to anonymity and confidentiality
Theoretical issues of structured interviews
Favoured by positivists.
Produces representative and generalisable findings.
Can establish correlations between variables.
How are structured interviews reliable?
- easy to standardise and control
- east for other researchers to recreate and replicate.
- answers can be compared easily to identify similarities and differences.
How are structured interviews representative?
Quick and cheap to conduct = large sample.
High response rates and sampling improve representativeness.
How can structured interviews be used in educational research?
-Pupils subcultures
- pupils experience of health and sex education
- class, ethnicity and language
- gender identity and the male gaze
- class and parental choice of schools
Positives and negatives of group interviews?
X - answers could be influenced by peers
X - cannot standardise questions
/ - creates a safe peer environment
/ - reduces power imbalance
/ - revellers interaction between pupils.
What are the characteristics of official statistics?
- secondary data
- produced by government or other official bodies
- data not collected by sociologists
Practical advantages of official statistics?
- free source of huge amounts of quantitative data
- allows us to make comparisons between groups
x- can show trends and patterns over time
Practical disadvantages of official statistics?
- data made for governments own purpose
- may be mismatches between sets of data
- definitions of the state may be different to that a sociologist would use.
- some stats collected infrequently such as the ten yearly census
Theoretical issues of official statistics
- positivists favour official stats as objective facts about society
- interpretivists see them as social constructs. Marxists and feminist see them as performing an ideological function
Characteristics of unstructured interviews?
- interviewers is free to vary the questions, wording or order.
- can pursue whatever line of questioning they wish
- can produce rich, detailed qualifications data
Practical issues of unstructured interviews?
- interviewer can develop a rapport
- training needs to be more thorough
- long time
- costs
- large amounts of data = time
Theoretical issues of unstructured interviews?
Validity can only be obtained by getting close to people’s experiences and meanings.
- see the world through interviewers eyes.
Why do interpretivists use the grounded theory whilst conducting unstructured interviews?
As the grounded theory allows them to build and modify there hypothesis during the course of the research based on what they discover.
What is Ann Oakley view of unstructured interviews?
She believes they are value committed as frees women from patriarchal oppression.
- aims for equality and collaboration
- requires researchers actual involvement
What are the 2 types of participant observation and explain them.
Non participant observation - researcher observed the group without taking part.
Participant observation - researcher takes part in the life of the group whilst observing it.
Characteristics of participant observation
- used more often than non-participant
- preferred by interpretivists
- positivists sometimes use structured non- participant observation
What is overt observation?
Where the researcher reveals their true identity and purpose to those being studied and asks their permission to observe
What is covert observation.
Where the research conceals their true identity and purpose, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.
What are the 3 main issues when it comes to observing a group?
Getting in, staying in and getting out
Practical issues of overt observation
- the researcher can behave normally and does not have to put on an act.
- group may refuse to let an outsider join them or restrict what they see
- researcher can take notes openly
- researcher has ability to opt out of any dangerous or illegal activities.
- risks Hawthorne effect.
Practical issues of covert observation
- researcher must keep an active up.
- researcher may need knowledge of norms before joining
- may see things they wouldn’t be able to if non-participant
- usually has to rely on memory to take notes
- may have to engage in dangerous activities
- less risk of a,teeing groups behaviour
Ethical issues - observation
- unethical to deceive people
- covert observers may have to lie about why they are leaving the group at the end of their research or Abondon them,
- participant in immoral or illegal activities is unethical.
What type of sociologists prefer Participant observation
Interpretivists - produces qualitative data.
- high in validity
- high in flexibility
Why do positivists reject use of participant observation?
- lack of representativeness
- lack of reliability
- bias and lack of objectivity
Lack of validity - due to subjectiveness.
How might observation be used in studies of education? (Methods in context)
- gender and classroom behaviour
- teacher expectations and labelling
- speech codes in the classroom
-Pupil subcultures - Teacher and pupil racism
- the hidden curriculum
What are the different type of texts that can be used as documents?
Written texts - like diaries, letters, emails,SMS texts.
Other texts- paintings, drawings, photographs
What are public documents.
Documents produced by organisations such as government departments, schools, welfare agencies, ousted.
What are some example of personal documents?
Facebook pages, letters, diaries, photo albums, autobiography
.
What are historical documents?
Personal or public documents created in the past.
Practical advantages of documents?
-May be the only available source of information
- may be free or cheap sources of large amounts of data
- save the sociologists time
Practical disadvantages of documents
- not always possible to gain access to them
- individuals and organisations create documents for their own purposes. Therefore may not contain answers to the kinds of questions the sociologists wishes to ask.
Ethical issues of documents.
- present fewer ethical problems than primary sources
- use of an organisations unpublished documents may raise ethical issues.
- if public documents have been ‘leaked’ to the researcher informed consent hasn’t been gained.
What type of sociologists are documents favoured by?
Favoured by interpretivists as it can give the researcher a valid picture of actors meanings. It is also more likely to be authentic of authors views as they are not written in the sociologist mind.
How May a document lack validity? (3 ways)
- a document can only yield data if it is authentic.
- issue of credibility- wether it’s believable.
- danger of misinterpreting what the document meant to the author and the audience.
How reliable are documents
Positivists see documents as unreliable sources of data.
- documents aren’t standardised
Representativeness of documents?
Some groups may not be represented in documents for example the illiterate and those with limited leisure time are unlikely to keep diaries
What is formal content analysis (documents)
Documents are normally qualitative forms of data, formal content analysis enables us to quantify data. Gil (1988) describes how formal content analysis might work:
What is thematic analysis?
- Qualitative analysis of media content - used by interpretivists and feminists
- Select a small number of cases for in depth analysis. Aim is to reveal the
underlying meanings that have been encoded in the documents, uncovering the authors ideological bias.
How does content analysis work?
- select a representative sample
- decide what categories are to be used
- study the stories and put them into chosen categories (coding)
- quantify how women are characterised in the stories by counting how many in each category
