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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

features of experiments

A
  1. Experimenters compare data collected from 2+ experimental groups
    with data collected in a control group to make conclusions
    about causality
  2. Control groups provide baseline
  3. IVs are manipulated and DVs are
    measured.
  4. The DV is measured with the belief that any difference
    is caused by the IV
  5. Standardised procedures and instructions are often used to give
    participants the same experience.
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2
Q

what is a lab experiment

A

Maintained where the experimenter has a high level of
control

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3
Q

strengths of lab experiment

A
  1. Ethics – participants give
    consent, but its not always informed. The
    right to withdraw is often given
  2. Reliability – procedures ave
    standardised instructions and procedures,
    giving consistency
  3. Validity – a high level of control allows
    causality to be shown
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4
Q

weakness of lab experiment

A
  1. Ethics – there may be deception of the
    aim of the study to ensure validity
  2. Validity – artificial conditions can produce unnatural behaviour,
    lowering ecological validity
  3. Validity – features of the environment
    may reveal the aim, leading to demand characteristics
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5
Q

what is a field experiment

A

an experiment that takes place in natural settings

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6
Q

strengths of a field experiment

A
  1. Validity – participants do not know they are taking part,
    so they are less likely to show demand characteristics.
  2. Validity – there is high ecological validity as
    participants are in their everyday environment.
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7
Q

weakness of field experiment

A
  1. Ethics – participants often don’t know they are taking
    part so this removes their right to withdraw and
    debriefing is often impossible.
  2. Reliability – there is less control over extraneous
    variables, so research is difficult to replicate
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8
Q

what is independent measures design

A

Each participant takes part in one group/condition of the independent variable

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9
Q

what are experimental designs

A

how participants are allocated to groups/conditions
of the independent variable.

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10
Q

3 types of experimental design

A
  1. repeated measures,
  2. independent measures
  3. matched pairs
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11
Q

strengths of independent measures desin

A
  1. Validity: no ordegn effects as participants take
    part in only one condition e.g. fatigue, boredom, or
    practice effects.
  2. Validity: Less chances of demand characteristics
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12
Q

weaknesses of independent measures design

A
  1. Validity: More participants are needed to get data.
  2. Validity: No control for participant variables.
    eg. participants in one group may be naturally
    better at the task given.
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13
Q

how can you eliminate participant variables in independent measures

A

Random allocation: done by tossing a coin or allowing a computer to
allocate groups.

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14
Q

what is repeated measures design

A

Each participant takes part in all conditions of the IV

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15
Q

strengths of repeated measures

A
  1. Validity: Participant variables are
    controlled as the same people do both
    conditions.
  2. Fewer participants are needed, which is
    useful if samples are limited
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16
Q

weaknesses of repeated measures

A
  1. Validity: Order effects can occur, so demand characteristics increase
  2. Apparatus may need duplicating
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17
Q

how can you eliminate order effects in repeated measures

A

counterbalance conditions. Half the participants first experience condition A
and then condition B, while the other half do B then A.

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18
Q

what is matched pairs design

A

Participants are matched for variables that could affect the results. Then, each
participant takes part in only one condition of the IV.

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19
Q

strengths of matched pairs design

A
  1. Validity: Participant variables are
    controlled.
  2. Validity: No problems with
    order effects.
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20
Q

weaknesses of matched pairs design

A
  1. Validity: Not all
    relevant variables may be able to be matched.
  2. It can be difficult and time-consuming to find participants.
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21
Q

what are a self reports

A

Allow participants to respond to questions about their beliefs and
opinions, and discuss their behaviours.

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22
Q

2 types of self reports

A
  1. questionnaire
  2. interview
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23
Q

features of questionnaires

A
  1. Questionnaires can be done by hand or online.
  2. How questions are asked depends on the type of response/data the researcher wants.

3.Data can be quantitative or qualitative .

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24
Q

strengths of questionnaires

A
  1. Questionnaires can obtain views from
    a large sample
  2. Anonymity can lead to more honest
    answers.
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25
Q

weaknesses of questionnaires

A
  1. Participants may not elaborate on answers
    when writing, limiting depth of the data.
  2. Participants may give socially desirable
    answers, not reflecting their own views/beliefs.
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26
Q

things to consider in a questionnaire

A
  1. Leading questions should be avoided to increase validity as these suggest a correct answer.
  2. Questions should be clear and understandable, so they should
    avoid ambiguity.
  3. Anything offensive or upsetting in the questions should be avoided to prevent
    distress.
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27
Q

types of questions

A
  1. closed
  2. open
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28
Q

what are closed questions

A

they offer pre-determined answers for the participant to choose from.

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29
Q

forms of closed questions

A
  1. Yes/No
  2. Category choice
  3. Likert/rating scale
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30
Q

what is a forced/fixed choice question

A

Scales do not allow answers like ‘unsure/undecided’ and are
intended to ‘force’ the participant to make a response.

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31
Q

strengths of closed questions

A
  1. Data is quantitative and can be analysed
    and displayed
    visually
  2. Forced choice questions prevent
    participants from avoiding questions.
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32
Q

weaknesses of closed questions

A
  1. A limited choice of categories can reduce
    validity.
  2. Participants may not be able to freely
    express their opinions
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33
Q

what are open questions

A

Participants can express their opinion freely without pre-determined responses.

‘Why’, ‘describe’ and ‘how’ are used in the questions to give qualitative
answers.

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34
Q

strengths of open questions

A
  1. Data is qualitative-more insight.
  2. Participants can give different opinions,
    so researchers can understand the
    complexity of an issue.
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35
Q

weaknesses of open questions

A
  1. Data is harder to analyse
  2. Data may be open to interpretation.
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36
Q

how can you distribute questionnaires

A
  1. online
  2. in person
  3. postal
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37
Q

online questionnaire distribution

A

Online: sending out email requests/online advertisements to complete online.

Strength: access to a large group and easily completed/returned.

Weakness: only targets those online.

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38
Q

in person questionnaire distribution

A

approaching face to face and asking them to complete it.

Strength: lower costs.

Weakness: limits the sample to those available at the time.

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39
Q

postal questionnaire distribution

A

sent via the postal system to be returned.

Strength: can target specific groups.

Weakness: expensive and takes time for people to return.

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40
Q

types of interviews

A
  1. structured
  2. unstructured
  3. semi structured
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41
Q

structured interviews

A

Fixed questions are pre-prepared and every participant receives the same questions
in the same order.

Strength: standardized as all participants receive the same questions, increasing
reliability.

Weakness: do not allow participants to elaborate on interesting answers.

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42
Q

unstructured interviews

A

There is no preparation. Questions are asked depending on the direction in
which the discussion goes.

Strength: allow researchers to gain an insight into the area they are researching,
not constrained by set questions.

Weakness: there is more risk of researcher bias.

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43
Q

semi structured interviews

A

Some structured questions and some unstructured questions

Strength: allow researchers to gain insight into the area.

Weakness: at more risk of researcher bias

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44
Q

strengths of interviews

A
  1. Interviews can gather rich, in-depth data.
  2. The participant can explain their
    behaviour.
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45
Q

weaknesses of interviews

A
  1. There is an increased likelihood of socially
    desirable answers as participants will be
    afraid of being judged.
  2. Researchers have to be cautious of
    leading questions.
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46
Q

what is a case studies

A

detailed investigations involving a single ‘unit’: one individual
or a group/organisation of people.

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47
Q

features of case studies

A
  1. Useful when researching rare cases
  2. Triangulation- Data is gathered using a number of different techniques
  3. Data is often gathered over an extended period of time (making them longitudinal)
  4. Both qualitative and quantitative data can be gathered.
  5. Data can be gathered from the participants but also from family, friends and
    official records
    6.Often begin with a case history
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48
Q

strengths of case studies

A
  1. Validity – a case study provides rich and
    detailed information giving insight into
    an individual’s psychology.
  2. Validity – a case study provides rich and
    detailed information giving insight into
    an individual’s psychology.
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49
Q

weaknesses of case studies

A
  1. Validity – researcher bias can occur as
    they work closely with the participant- less objectivity
  2. Reliability – case studies are difficult to
    replicate as they are detailed analyses of
    one individual/small group.
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50
Q

what is an observation

A

Data is collected through observing (watching) participants with the aim of
recording the behaviour shown.

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51
Q

features of an observation

A
  1. overt or covert
  2. participant or non-participant
  3. structured or unstructured
  4. naturalistic or controlled
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52
Q

what is an overt observation

A

when the participants know they are being observed.

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53
Q

what is a covert observation

A

where the participants do not know they are being observed

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54
Q

strength of overt observation

A

more ethical
as participants know they are being
observed, which avoids deception

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55
Q

weakness of overt observation

A

may produce demand
characteristics as participants know they
are being watched so may act unnaturally

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56
Q

strength of covert observation

A

avoid demand
characteristics as participants do not
know they are being observed.

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57
Q

weakness of covert observation

A

less ethical as
participants do not know they are being
observed and cannot withdraw.

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58
Q

what is participant observation

A

when the observer becomes part of the community
they wish to observe

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59
Q

what is non-participant observation

A

when the observer is not a part of the group and
they observe from a distance

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60
Q

strength of participant observation

A

observers may gain a greater understanding of the
participants’ behaviour as they are involved in the situation

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61
Q

weakness of participant observation

A

observers may become too involved with
those they are observing and become less objective.

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62
Q

strength of non-participant observation

A

observers are more likely to be objective as
they are not personally involved in the situation.

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63
Q

weakness of non-participant observation

A

observers may miss behaviours as
they are observing from a distance

64
Q

what is a structured observation

A

have behavioural checklists in place before beginning
the observation.
A tally is kept of behaviours.
Researchers plan what will be
observed.

65
Q

what is unstructured observation

A

do not include planning before the observation and the
observer records behaviour that is relevant to the aim of the research as it occurs

66
Q

strength of unstructured observation

A

can be part of a pilot study, giving
an overview of the range of behaviours

67
Q

weakness of unstructured observation

A

can be
difficult to record all behaviour

68
Q

strengths of structured observation

A

more reliable than unstructured
ones as the behaviours are decided in advance and
operationalised.
Inter-rater reliability can be assessed.

69
Q

weakness of structured observation

A

may not include all relevant
actions within the behavioural categories.

70
Q

what is a naturalistic observation

A

conducted in real-world settings

71
Q

what is a controlled observation

A

conducted in laboratory settings

72
Q

strength of naturalistic observation

A

record behaviour that is likely
to be normal, increasing ecological validity

73
Q

weakness of naturalistic observation

A

harder to control for
extraneous variables that may affect participants’
behaviour, lowering the validity

74
Q

strength of controlled observation

A

can be replicated by others when
using the same behaviour schedule

75
Q

weakness of controlled observation

A

may be less natural if
participants are aware of the controlled setting

76
Q

what are correlation studies

A

studies look at the relationship between variables

77
Q

features of a correlation

A
  1. Variables that are correlated are called co-variables.
  2. For each participant, two sets of data are gathered which can be plotted on a
    scatter graph to see a correlation
  3. Various methods are used to collect data in correlations
    eg. questionnaires
78
Q

positive correlation

A

is when the scores of co-variables move in the
same direction

79
Q

negative correlation

A

when the scores of the co-variables
move in opposing directions

80
Q

no correlation

A

no consistent relationship is found
between scores.

81
Q

strengths of correlation

A
  1. Correlations can provide information that
    may prompt further research.
  2. Correlations allow areas to be researched
    when it is impractical or unethical to
    manipulate variables.
82
Q

weaknesses of correlations

A
  1. Correlations do not tell us why that
    relationship has occurred. Causality
    cannot be assumed.
  2. A third variable not being measured may
    have influenced the relationship.
83
Q

what is a longitudinal study

A

studies conducted over an extended period of time

84
Q

features of longitudinal studies

A
  1. Measures at different points in time can track the development of
    individuals.
  2. Changes in thoughts, feelings and behaviours can be documented.
  3. Various techniques can be used
85
Q

strengths of longitudinal studies

A
  1. do not have participant
    variables as the same individuals are followed over time.
  2. allow topics such as child
    development to be studied.
86
Q

weaknesses of longitudinal studies

A
  1. Participant attrition is more likely as participants may
    move away or lose contact.
  2. Temporal validity may impact on the findings
87
Q

what is an aim

A

a statement describing the purpose of research

88
Q

what is a hypothesis

A

testable statement predicting the outcome(s) of an investigation

89
Q

what is operationalisation

A

This means clearly defining the IV, DV and co-variables

90
Q

types of hypotheses

A
  1. experimental
  2. alternative
  3. directional
  4. non-directional
  5. null
91
Q

what is an experimental hypothesis

A

predict an outcome for experiments (IV and DV)

92
Q

what is an alternative hypothesis

A

the alternative to the null hypothesis and
used for all types of research

93
Q

what is a directional hypothesis

A

states the kind of difference/correlation

94
Q

what is a non-directional hypothesis

A

there will be a difference/correlation but does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

95
Q

what is a null hypothesis

A

states there is no significant relationship/difference and that results are due to chance

96
Q

why is controlling variables important

A

improves validity.

experimenters should control as many
extraneous variables as possible.

97
Q

what is a way to control variables

A

standardisation.

98
Q

what is standardisation

A

to ensure participants have the same
experience.

  1. The only difference should be the IV
  2. Participants should be given the same instructions.
99
Q

name 2 uncontrolled variables

A
  1. situational
  2. participant
100
Q

what is a situational variable

A

a factor in the environment can act as an extraneous variable

101
Q

how can situational variables be controlled

A

using standardised procedures, ensuring
the same conditions for all participants

102
Q

what is a participant variable

A

The participants in one group may be different from participants in the other
group in important ways.

103
Q

how can participant variables be controlled

A
  1. random allocation to groups
    2.matched pairs design
  2. repeated measures design
104
Q

types of data

A
  1. quantitative
  2. qualitative
  3. subjective
  4. objective
105
Q

what is quantitative data

A

describes human behaviour and experience using numbers and
statistical analysis

can be measured

106
Q

strengths of quantitative data

A
  1. Scores can be compared.
  2. Results can be
    compared if the study is replicated.
  3. Numbers and statistics are more objective
    and less prone to researcher bias.
  4. It is more scientific as statistical tests
    can be conducted.
107
Q

weaknesses of quantitative data

A
  1. It does not always allow us to understand
    what a participant is thinking or feeling.
  2. Scales may limit how participants can
    respond, reducing validity
  3. Reduces behaviour to a single number,
    failing to find out why a participant has
    behaved a particular way.
108
Q

what is qualitative data

A

descriptive, in-depth detail of behaviour and
experience

not measured

109
Q

strengths of qualitative data

A
  1. Provides an in-depth understanding
    of the thoughts and feelings of
    participants.
  2. Can be rich in detail and insightful,
    so not reductionist.
  3. Researchers can understand why people behave in a certain way.
110
Q

weaknesses of qualitative data

A
  1. Analysis is prone to researcher bias as the
    interpretation is more subjective
  2. Statistical analysis cannot be made- so less scientific.
  3. Studies are harder to replicate so findings
    can be less reliable
111
Q

what is subjective data

A

data that can be influenced by personal thoughts, feelings or opinions

likely to be qualitative data

112
Q

what is objective data

A

data that is unbiased and factual.

often quantitative.

113
Q

how can objectivity be improved

A

by getting another researcher to interpret
the data, removing researcher bias

114
Q

what is a sample

A

a group selected to represent the target
population and findings from the studied group should be generalisable to the
target population.

115
Q

types of sampling techniques

A
  1. opportunity
  2. random
  3. volunteer (self-selecting)
116
Q

what is opportunity sampling

A

selecting those available at the time of research

117
Q

evaluate opportunity sampling

A

-Strength: a large sample can be obtained quickly and without much effort.

-Weakness: researchers may choose people who look suitable and therefore bias
the sample.

118
Q

what is random sampling

A

Each participant is randomly selected from the target population.

Every
member of the group has an equal chance of being selected

119
Q

evaluate random sampling

A

-Strength: more likely to be representative.

-Weakness: some of the people picked may not want to take part and will need replacing

120
Q

what is volunteer sampling

A

asking for volunteers to take part in research through
advertisements

121
Q

evaluate volunteer sampling

A

-Strength: useful when the research requires participants of a specific type or
with a particular experience.

-Weaknesses: people may not see the advert or make time to reply, or they may just
ignore it.
Those who do volunteer may be different from those who do not choose
to volunteer.

122
Q

name 7 ethical guidelines relating to humans

A
  1. valid consent
  2. right to withdraw
  3. minimizing harm
  4. lack of deception
  5. confidentiality
  6. privacy
  7. debriefing
123
Q

valid consent

A

Participants should be asked if they want to take part and be given relevant
information about what is involved.

Consent should be provided before collecting data

124
Q

right to withdraw

A

Participants should be made aware they can withdraw from the study at any time
during or after data collection

125
Q

minimising harm

A

Researchers must minimise harm to participants’ psychological wellbeing,
personal values, privacy or dignity and mental health.

The risk of harm should be no greater than the participant might expect in their
everyday lives.

126
Q

lack of deception

A

Participants should not be deceived about the aims or misled about the study.

When deception is involved, a full debrief is needed.

127
Q

confidentiality

A

Participants’ data should not be passed to others who are not involved in the
research and it should not be published in a way that would reveal their identity.

128
Q

Privacy

A

Considered within observational research.

Participants should only be observed in public situations where they might
expect to be observed by others.

129
Q

debriefing

A

Participants should be told what has happened, asked if they have concerns and
given explanations at the end of the study.

130
Q

name 7 ethical guidelines relating to non-humans

A
  1. minimising harm and maximising benefit
  2. replacement
  3. species (and strain)
  4. numbers
  5. pain and distress
  6. housing
  7. reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
131
Q

minimising harm and maximising benefit

A

Researchers should minimise harm, discomfort and suffering to the animals and
maximise the benefit of the research

132
Q

replacement

A

Alternatives to using animals should be considered where possible

133
Q

species and strain

A

Appropriate species should be chosen (least likely to suffer).

Nonhuman primates should be avoided due to the high level of sentience.

134
Q

numbers

A

Researchers should use the smallest number of animals possible to meet the research
aims.
Animals should not be used over a long period of time.

135
Q

pain and distress

A

Death, disease and psychological or physical discomfort should be avoided.

An animal’s environment should be enriched where possible.

136
Q

housing

A

The social and natural behaviour of the species should be considered.

Animals who
would normally live in social groups should not be isolated.

Overcrowding should
be avoided.

137
Q

reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli

A

Normal feeding patterns should be adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation
should be avoided, or kept to the minimum.

138
Q

what is validity

A

whether the observed effect is a genuine one

139
Q

what is external validity

A

the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research
setting

140
Q

what is internal validity

A

the extent to which a researcher has measured what they intended to measure

141
Q

threats to internal validity

A
  1. social desirability bias
  2. subjectivity
  3. demand characteristics
  4. low controls
142
Q

social desirability bias

A

participants may want to present themselves in the best
way possible, so answers may not represent true thoughts and feelings.

143
Q

demand characteristics

A

participants will not behave as they usually do if they
alter behaviour as a consequence of the cues in research.

144
Q

types of external validity

A
  1. generalisability
  2. ecological validity
  3. temporal validity
145
Q

what is generalisability

A

It should be possible to apply findings to people other than the participants

sometimes referred to population validity

sample generalisable if its representative

146
Q

what is ecoloical validity

A

the extent to which the results of research can be
generalised from the environmental conditions created by the researcher to other
environmental conditions.

research done in real life settings has high ecological validity

147
Q

what is temporal validity

A

whether the results can be generalised to a different time period.

148
Q

what is reliability

A

extent to which a psychological measure
gives consistent measurements

149
Q

how can reliability be assesed

A
  1. test-retest method- administering the same test to the same person on 2 different occasions
  2. split-half method: splitting the test into two and administering each half to the same person; the scores from the two halves should be the same
  3. inter-rater reliability:
150
Q

what is inter-rater reliability

A

the extent to which two or
more independent observers agree on the observations they have made

151
Q

when is a study replicable

A

If another psychologist can carry out a study in the same way to see if they get
consistent results

152
Q

why is replicability an advantage

A

helps researchers show the reliability of findings

153
Q

measures of central tendency

A

summarise all data into one score

154
Q

types of measures of central tendency

A
  1. mean -arithmetic average
  2. median- middle value of a set of scores
  3. mode- most frequent score
155
Q

measures of spread

A

helps researchers see how similar data points are and how varied data points are

156
Q

types of measures of spread

A
  1. range- difference between highest and lowest score
  2. standard deviation- measure of spread of data around the mean
157
Q

how can data be displayed

A
  1. bar charts- used wen data is in categories. Differences in measures of central tendency can be shown.
  2. histograms- used when data is on a continuous scale.
    A distribution of scores can be shown.
  3. scatter graphs- used to show correlations

cie a level psychology (14 decks)

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