research methods Flashcards
features of experiments
- Experimenters compare data collected from 2+ experimental groups
with data collected in a control group to make conclusions
about causality - Control groups provide baseline
- IVs are manipulated and DVs are
measured. - The DV is measured with the belief that any difference
is caused by the IV - Standardised procedures and instructions are often used to give
participants the same experience.
what is a lab experiment
Maintained where the experimenter has a high level of
control
strengths of lab experiment
- Ethics – participants give
consent, but its not always informed. The
right to withdraw is often given - Reliability – procedures ave
standardised instructions and procedures,
giving consistency - Validity – a high level of control allows
causality to be shown
weakness of lab experiment
- Ethics – there may be deception of the
aim of the study to ensure validity - Validity – artificial conditions can produce unnatural behaviour,
lowering ecological validity - Validity – features of the environment
may reveal the aim, leading to demand characteristics
what is a field experiment
an experiment that takes place in natural settings
strengths of a field experiment
- Validity – participants do not know they are taking part,
so they are less likely to show demand characteristics. - Validity – there is high ecological validity as
participants are in their everyday environment.
weakness of field experiment
- Ethics – participants often don’t know they are taking
part so this removes their right to withdraw and
debriefing is often impossible. - Reliability – there is less control over extraneous
variables, so research is difficult to replicate
what is independent measures design
Each participant takes part in one group/condition of the independent variable
what are experimental designs
how participants are allocated to groups/conditions
of the independent variable.
3 types of experimental design
- repeated measures,
- independent measures
- matched pairs
strengths of independent measures desin
- Validity: no ordegn effects as participants take
part in only one condition e.g. fatigue, boredom, or
practice effects. - Validity: Less chances of demand characteristics
weaknesses of independent measures design
- Validity: More participants are needed to get data.
- Validity: No control for participant variables.
eg. participants in one group may be naturally
better at the task given.
how can you eliminate participant variables in independent measures
Random allocation: done by tossing a coin or allowing a computer to
allocate groups.
what is repeated measures design
Each participant takes part in all conditions of the IV
strengths of repeated measures
- Validity: Participant variables are
controlled as the same people do both
conditions. - Fewer participants are needed, which is
useful if samples are limited
weaknesses of repeated measures
- Validity: Order effects can occur, so demand characteristics increase
- Apparatus may need duplicating
how can you eliminate order effects in repeated measures
counterbalance conditions. Half the participants first experience condition A
and then condition B, while the other half do B then A.
what is matched pairs design
Participants are matched for variables that could affect the results. Then, each
participant takes part in only one condition of the IV.
strengths of matched pairs design
- Validity: Participant variables are
controlled. - Validity: No problems with
order effects.
weaknesses of matched pairs design
- Validity: Not all
relevant variables may be able to be matched. - It can be difficult and time-consuming to find participants.
what are a self reports
Allow participants to respond to questions about their beliefs and
opinions, and discuss their behaviours.
2 types of self reports
- questionnaire
- interview
features of questionnaires
- Questionnaires can be done by hand or online.
- How questions are asked depends on the type of response/data the researcher wants.
3.Data can be quantitative or qualitative .
strengths of questionnaires
- Questionnaires can obtain views from
a large sample - Anonymity can lead to more honest
answers.
weaknesses of questionnaires
- Participants may not elaborate on answers
when writing, limiting depth of the data. - Participants may give socially desirable
answers, not reflecting their own views/beliefs.
things to consider in a questionnaire
- Leading questions should be avoided to increase validity as these suggest a correct answer.
- Questions should be clear and understandable, so they should
avoid ambiguity. - Anything offensive or upsetting in the questions should be avoided to prevent
distress.
types of questions
- closed
- open
what are closed questions
they offer pre-determined answers for the participant to choose from.
forms of closed questions
- Yes/No
- Category choice
- Likert/rating scale
what is a forced/fixed choice question
Scales do not allow answers like ‘unsure/undecided’ and are
intended to ‘force’ the participant to make a response.
strengths of closed questions
- Data is quantitative and can be analysed
and displayed
visually - Forced choice questions prevent
participants from avoiding questions.
weaknesses of closed questions
- A limited choice of categories can reduce
validity. - Participants may not be able to freely
express their opinions
what are open questions
Participants can express their opinion freely without pre-determined responses.
‘Why’, ‘describe’ and ‘how’ are used in the questions to give qualitative
answers.
strengths of open questions
- Data is qualitative-more insight.
- Participants can give different opinions,
so researchers can understand the
complexity of an issue.
weaknesses of open questions
- Data is harder to analyse
- Data may be open to interpretation.
how can you distribute questionnaires
- online
- in person
- postal
online questionnaire distribution
Online: sending out email requests/online advertisements to complete online.
Strength: access to a large group and easily completed/returned.
Weakness: only targets those online.
in person questionnaire distribution
approaching face to face and asking them to complete it.
Strength: lower costs.
Weakness: limits the sample to those available at the time.
postal questionnaire distribution
sent via the postal system to be returned.
Strength: can target specific groups.
Weakness: expensive and takes time for people to return.
types of interviews
- structured
- unstructured
- semi structured
structured interviews
Fixed questions are pre-prepared and every participant receives the same questions
in the same order.
Strength: standardized as all participants receive the same questions, increasing
reliability.
Weakness: do not allow participants to elaborate on interesting answers.
unstructured interviews
There is no preparation. Questions are asked depending on the direction in
which the discussion goes.
Strength: allow researchers to gain an insight into the area they are researching,
not constrained by set questions.
Weakness: there is more risk of researcher bias.
semi structured interviews
Some structured questions and some unstructured questions
Strength: allow researchers to gain insight into the area.
Weakness: at more risk of researcher bias
strengths of interviews
- Interviews can gather rich, in-depth data.
- The participant can explain their
behaviour.
weaknesses of interviews
- There is an increased likelihood of socially
desirable answers as participants will be
afraid of being judged. - Researchers have to be cautious of
leading questions.
what is a case studies
detailed investigations involving a single ‘unit’: one individual
or a group/organisation of people.
features of case studies
- Useful when researching rare cases
- Triangulation- Data is gathered using a number of different techniques
- Data is often gathered over an extended period of time (making them longitudinal)
- Both qualitative and quantitative data can be gathered.
- Data can be gathered from the participants but also from family, friends and
official records
6.Often begin with a case history
strengths of case studies
- Validity – a case study provides rich and
detailed information giving insight into
an individual’s psychology. - Validity – a case study provides rich and
detailed information giving insight into
an individual’s psychology.
weaknesses of case studies
- Validity – researcher bias can occur as
they work closely with the participant- less objectivity - Reliability – case studies are difficult to
replicate as they are detailed analyses of
one individual/small group.
what is an observation
Data is collected through observing (watching) participants with the aim of
recording the behaviour shown.
features of an observation
- overt or covert
- participant or non-participant
- structured or unstructured
- naturalistic or controlled
what is an overt observation
when the participants know they are being observed.
what is a covert observation
where the participants do not know they are being observed
strength of overt observation
more ethical
as participants know they are being
observed, which avoids deception
weakness of overt observation
may produce demand
characteristics as participants know they
are being watched so may act unnaturally
strength of covert observation
avoid demand
characteristics as participants do not
know they are being observed.
weakness of covert observation
less ethical as
participants do not know they are being
observed and cannot withdraw.
what is participant observation
when the observer becomes part of the community
they wish to observe
what is non-participant observation
when the observer is not a part of the group and
they observe from a distance
strength of participant observation
observers may gain a greater understanding of the
participants’ behaviour as they are involved in the situation
weakness of participant observation
observers may become too involved with
those they are observing and become less objective.
strength of non-participant observation
observers are more likely to be objective as
they are not personally involved in the situation.
weakness of non-participant observation
observers may miss behaviours as
they are observing from a distance
what is a structured observation
have behavioural checklists in place before beginning
the observation.
A tally is kept of behaviours.
Researchers plan what will be
observed.
what is unstructured observation
do not include planning before the observation and the
observer records behaviour that is relevant to the aim of the research as it occurs
strength of unstructured observation
can be part of a pilot study, giving
an overview of the range of behaviours
weakness of unstructured observation
can be
difficult to record all behaviour
strengths of structured observation
more reliable than unstructured
ones as the behaviours are decided in advance and
operationalised.
Inter-rater reliability can be assessed.
weakness of structured observation
may not include all relevant
actions within the behavioural categories.
what is a naturalistic observation
conducted in real-world settings
what is a controlled observation
conducted in laboratory settings
strength of naturalistic observation
record behaviour that is likely
to be normal, increasing ecological validity
weakness of naturalistic observation
harder to control for
extraneous variables that may affect participants’
behaviour, lowering the validity
strength of controlled observation
can be replicated by others when
using the same behaviour schedule
weakness of controlled observation
may be less natural if
participants are aware of the controlled setting
what are correlation studies
studies look at the relationship between variables
features of a correlation
- Variables that are correlated are called co-variables.
- For each participant, two sets of data are gathered which can be plotted on a
scatter graph to see a correlation - Various methods are used to collect data in correlations
eg. questionnaires
positive correlation
is when the scores of co-variables move in the
same direction
negative correlation
when the scores of the co-variables
move in opposing directions
no correlation
no consistent relationship is found
between scores.
strengths of correlation
- Correlations can provide information that
may prompt further research. - Correlations allow areas to be researched
when it is impractical or unethical to
manipulate variables.
weaknesses of correlations
- Correlations do not tell us why that
relationship has occurred. Causality
cannot be assumed. - A third variable not being measured may
have influenced the relationship.
what is a longitudinal study
studies conducted over an extended period of time
features of longitudinal studies
- Measures at different points in time can track the development of
individuals. - Changes in thoughts, feelings and behaviours can be documented.
- Various techniques can be used
strengths of longitudinal studies
- do not have participant
variables as the same individuals are followed over time. - allow topics such as child
development to be studied.
weaknesses of longitudinal studies
- Participant attrition is more likely as participants may
move away or lose contact. - Temporal validity may impact on the findings
what is an aim
a statement describing the purpose of research
what is a hypothesis
testable statement predicting the outcome(s) of an investigation
what is operationalisation
This means clearly defining the IV, DV and co-variables
types of hypotheses
- experimental
- alternative
- directional
- non-directional
- null
what is an experimental hypothesis
predict an outcome for experiments (IV and DV)
what is an alternative hypothesis
the alternative to the null hypothesis and
used for all types of research
what is a directional hypothesis
states the kind of difference/correlation
what is a non-directional hypothesis
there will be a difference/correlation but does not state the direction of the difference or relationship
what is a null hypothesis
states there is no significant relationship/difference and that results are due to chance
why is controlling variables important
improves validity.
experimenters should control as many
extraneous variables as possible.
what is a way to control variables
standardisation.
what is standardisation
to ensure participants have the same
experience.
- The only difference should be the IV
- Participants should be given the same instructions.
name 2 uncontrolled variables
- situational
- participant
what is a situational variable
a factor in the environment can act as an extraneous variable
how can situational variables be controlled
using standardised procedures, ensuring
the same conditions for all participants
what is a participant variable
The participants in one group may be different from participants in the other
group in important ways.
how can participant variables be controlled
- random allocation to groups
2.matched pairs design - repeated measures design
types of data
- quantitative
- qualitative
- subjective
- objective
what is quantitative data
describes human behaviour and experience using numbers and
statistical analysis
can be measured
strengths of quantitative data
- Scores can be compared.
- Results can be
compared if the study is replicated. - Numbers and statistics are more objective
and less prone to researcher bias. - It is more scientific as statistical tests
can be conducted.
weaknesses of quantitative data
- It does not always allow us to understand
what a participant is thinking or feeling. - Scales may limit how participants can
respond, reducing validity - Reduces behaviour to a single number,
failing to find out why a participant has
behaved a particular way.
what is qualitative data
descriptive, in-depth detail of behaviour and
experience
not measured
strengths of qualitative data
- Provides an in-depth understanding
of the thoughts and feelings of
participants. - Can be rich in detail and insightful,
so not reductionist. - Researchers can understand why people behave in a certain way.
weaknesses of qualitative data
- Analysis is prone to researcher bias as the
interpretation is more subjective - Statistical analysis cannot be made- so less scientific.
- Studies are harder to replicate so findings
can be less reliable
what is subjective data
data that can be influenced by personal thoughts, feelings or opinions
likely to be qualitative data
what is objective data
data that is unbiased and factual.
often quantitative.
how can objectivity be improved
by getting another researcher to interpret
the data, removing researcher bias
what is a sample
a group selected to represent the target
population and findings from the studied group should be generalisable to the
target population.
types of sampling techniques
- opportunity
- random
- volunteer (self-selecting)
what is opportunity sampling
selecting those available at the time of research
evaluate opportunity sampling
-Strength: a large sample can be obtained quickly and without much effort.
-Weakness: researchers may choose people who look suitable and therefore bias
the sample.
what is random sampling
Each participant is randomly selected from the target population.
Every
member of the group has an equal chance of being selected
evaluate random sampling
-Strength: more likely to be representative.
-Weakness: some of the people picked may not want to take part and will need replacing
what is volunteer sampling
asking for volunteers to take part in research through
advertisements
evaluate volunteer sampling
-Strength: useful when the research requires participants of a specific type or
with a particular experience.
-Weaknesses: people may not see the advert or make time to reply, or they may just
ignore it.
Those who do volunteer may be different from those who do not choose
to volunteer.
name 7 ethical guidelines relating to humans
- valid consent
- right to withdraw
- minimizing harm
- lack of deception
- confidentiality
- privacy
- debriefing
valid consent
Participants should be asked if they want to take part and be given relevant
information about what is involved.
Consent should be provided before collecting data
right to withdraw
Participants should be made aware they can withdraw from the study at any time
during or after data collection
minimising harm
Researchers must minimise harm to participants’ psychological wellbeing,
personal values, privacy or dignity and mental health.
The risk of harm should be no greater than the participant might expect in their
everyday lives.
lack of deception
Participants should not be deceived about the aims or misled about the study.
When deception is involved, a full debrief is needed.
confidentiality
Participants’ data should not be passed to others who are not involved in the
research and it should not be published in a way that would reveal their identity.
Privacy
Considered within observational research.
Participants should only be observed in public situations where they might
expect to be observed by others.
debriefing
Participants should be told what has happened, asked if they have concerns and
given explanations at the end of the study.
name 7 ethical guidelines relating to non-humans
- minimising harm and maximising benefit
- replacement
- species (and strain)
- numbers
- pain and distress
- housing
- reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
minimising harm and maximising benefit
Researchers should minimise harm, discomfort and suffering to the animals and
maximise the benefit of the research
replacement
Alternatives to using animals should be considered where possible
species and strain
Appropriate species should be chosen (least likely to suffer).
Nonhuman primates should be avoided due to the high level of sentience.
numbers
Researchers should use the smallest number of animals possible to meet the research
aims.
Animals should not be used over a long period of time.
pain and distress
Death, disease and psychological or physical discomfort should be avoided.
An animal’s environment should be enriched where possible.
housing
The social and natural behaviour of the species should be considered.
Animals who
would normally live in social groups should not be isolated.
Overcrowding should
be avoided.
reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
Normal feeding patterns should be adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation
should be avoided, or kept to the minimum.
what is validity
whether the observed effect is a genuine one
what is external validity
the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research
setting
what is internal validity
the extent to which a researcher has measured what they intended to measure
threats to internal validity
- social desirability bias
- subjectivity
- demand characteristics
- low controls
social desirability bias
participants may want to present themselves in the best
way possible, so answers may not represent true thoughts and feelings.
demand characteristics
participants will not behave as they usually do if they
alter behaviour as a consequence of the cues in research.
types of external validity
- generalisability
- ecological validity
- temporal validity
what is generalisability
It should be possible to apply findings to people other than the participants
sometimes referred to population validity
sample generalisable if its representative
what is ecoloical validity
the extent to which the results of research can be
generalised from the environmental conditions created by the researcher to other
environmental conditions.
research done in real life settings has high ecological validity
what is temporal validity
whether the results can be generalised to a different time period.
what is reliability
extent to which a psychological measure
gives consistent measurements
how can reliability be assesed
- test-retest method- administering the same test to the same person on 2 different occasions
- split-half method: splitting the test into two and administering each half to the same person; the scores from the two halves should be the same
- inter-rater reliability:
what is inter-rater reliability
the extent to which two or
more independent observers agree on the observations they have made
when is a study replicable
If another psychologist can carry out a study in the same way to see if they get
consistent results
why is replicability an advantage
helps researchers show the reliability of findings
measures of central tendency
summarise all data into one score
types of measures of central tendency
- mean -arithmetic average
- median- middle value of a set of scores
- mode- most frequent score
measures of spread
helps researchers see how similar data points are and how varied data points are
types of measures of spread
- range- difference between highest and lowest score
- standard deviation- measure of spread of data around the mean
how can data be displayed
- bar charts- used wen data is in categories. Differences in measures of central tendency can be shown.
- histograms- used when data is on a continuous scale.
A distribution of scores can be shown. - scatter graphs- used to show correlations
